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Archive-name: judaism/FAQ/04-Observance
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Frequently Asked Questions on Soc.Culture.Jewish
Part 4: Observance, Marriage, Women in Judaism
[Last Post: Tue Dec 2 11:07:35 US/Pacific 2003]
The FAQ is a collection of documents that is an attempt to answer
questions that are continually asked on the soc.culture.jewish family
of newsgroups. It was written by cooperating laypeople from the
various Judaic movements. You should not make any assumption as to
accuracy and/or authoritativeness of the answers provided herein. In
all cases, it is always best to consult a competent authority--your
local rabbi is a good place to start.
[2][Got Questions?] Hopefully, the FAQ will provide the answer to your
questions. If it doesn't, please drop Email to
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The deceased sages described within are of blessed memory, (assume a
Z"L or ZT"L after their names) and the sages alive today should live
to see long and good days (assume SHLITA). May Hashem grant complete
recovery to the ill. Individual honorifics are omitted.
The FAQ was produced by a committee and is a cooperative work. The
contributors never standardized on transliteration scheme from Hebrew,
Aramaic, Yiddish, or Ladino to English. As a result, the same original
word might appear with a variety of spellings. This is complicated by
the fact that there are regional variations in the pronunciation of
Hebrew. In some places, the common spelling variations are mentioned;
in others--not. We hope that this is not too confusing.
In general, throughout this FAQ, North American (US/Canada) terms are
used to refer to the movements of Judaism. Outside of North American,
Reform is Progressive or Liberal Judaism; Conservative is Masorti or
Neolog, and Orthodoxy is often just "Judaism". Even with this, there
are differences in practice, position, and ritual between US/Canada
Reform and other progressive/liberal movements (such as UK
Progressive/ Liberal), and between US/Canada Conservative and the
conservative/Masorti movement elsewhere. Where appropriate, these
differences will be highlighted.
The goal of the FAQ is to present a balanced view of Judaism; where a
response is applicable to a particular movement only, this will be
noted. Unless otherwise noted or implied by the text, all responses
reflect the traditional viewpoint.
This list should be used in conjunction with the Soc.Culture.Jewish
[5]reading lists. Similar questions can be found in the books
referenced in those lists.
There are also numerous other Jewish FAQs available on the Internet
that are not part of the SCJ FAQ/RL suite. An index to these may be
found at [6]www.scjfaq.org/otherfaqs.html
This FAQ is a volunteer effort. If you wish to support the maintenance
of the FAQ, please see [7]Section 20, Question 99 for more
information.
Reproduction of this posting for commercial use is subject to
restriction. See Part 1 for more details.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: ORGANIZATION
This portion of the FAQ contains answers to the following questions:
Section 5:
Jewish Holidays
1. [5]What are the different holidays?
2. [6]What are the dates of the upcoming Jewish holidays?
3. [7]How can I get a Jewish calendar
4. [8]Why do some people take off one day, and others two?
5. [9]Why does the Jewish day start at sundown?
6. [10]What are the origins of the Chanukah Dreidel?
7. [11]Is it appropriate for Christians to "celebrate" Pesach using
the form of a seder meal?
8. [12]What are the months of the Jewish Year?
9. [13]How does Judaism measure the day?
10. [14]Are the Four Questions asked on Pesach in the Torah?
11. [15]What are the different days of the Jewish week?
12. [16]How are Yahrzeits observed in Leap Years?
13. [17]What happened to the observance on 14 Nisan as Passover?
14. [18]For Mother's Day, how should one bless their mothers?
Section 6:
Jewish Dietary Law and Kashrut
1. [5]What is Kosher? Doesn't a rabbi just bless the food?
2. [6]How can I learn about Kashrut? Is there a "Kosher" FAQ?
3. [7]There are a wide variety of kosher symbols. How do I learn
who's behind them?
4. [8]I'm going to be in (insert city here). How do I find the kosher
restaurants?
5. [9]Do I need to have a kosher kitchen and kosher home to keep
kosher?
6. [10]I have heard that Polish Orthodox Jews wait 6 hours between
eating milchig and fleishig and Dutch Orthodox Jews wait about an
hour. Why?
7. [11]Why do Sephardim and Ashkenazim have different customs
regarding permissible foods on Pesach (Passover)?
8. [12]I'm a vegetarian health-food proponent. Is kosher food
healthier?
9. [13]Is vegetarianism kosher?
10. [14]What process is involved in Kosher Slaughter?
11. [15]I work in a prison, and I have an inmate that is demanding
Kosher Food? How do I know if his claim is justified?
12. [16]What are the issues involving Filet Minion?
13. [17]Why don't Jews eat Pork?
14. [18]Would the laws of Kashrut prevent Mad Cow Disease?
15. [19]Is Monkfish Kosher?
16. [20]Why do Jews separate Milk and Meat?
17. [21]Must Jews use wine?
18. [22]Are there parts of a kosher animal that cannot be eaten?
19. [23]I have a friend coming over that keeps Kosher. What do I do?
Section 7:
Shabbat Observance
1. [5]What is the Jewish Sabbath and why is it on Saturday?
2. [6]Why do my Orthodox Jewish friends leave work early on Fridays
and before Jewish holidays?
3. [7]Why can't Jews use electrical appliances and motor vehicles on
Shabbat?
4. [8]Why are there 18 minutes from the time candle lighting starts
on Shabbat until the last time you can light?
5. [9]I've heard that Jews can't tear on Shabbat? Why? What is
"work"?
6. [10]How do people know when to light candles in the Arctic?
7. [11]What is the significance of Challah?
8. [12]Why do women wave their hands three times before lighting
Shabbat [or Holiday] candles?
9. [13]What is an Eruv?
10. [14]If your home is burning, can you put out the fire on Shabbat?
11. [15]What Medical Procedures May Be Performed on Shabbat?
12. [16]What happens on Shabbat?
13. [17]Do Conservative Jews play musical instruments on Shabbat?
14. [18]Why is there a prohibition on travel on Shabbat?
15. [19]Can an observant Jew use a camera on Shabbat?
Section 8:
Woman and Marriage
1. [5]What role do women play in Judaism?
2. [6]What is the Conservative view of the role of women in Judaism?
3. [7]What is the Reform view of the role of women in Judaism?
4. [8]What is the Orthodox view of the role of women in Judaism?
5. [9]Is it true that Orthodox men bless G-d every morning for not
making them a woman? What do you mean, this isn't terrible?
6. [10]I've heard polygamy is permissible among Sephardic and
Yemenite Jews. Doesn't Judaism mandate monogamy?
7. [11]What does clean/unclean refer to?
8. [12]What is "Niddah"?
9. [13]I've heard that Orthodox men can't touch women. Is this true?
10. [14]Are there any rituals for purification after childbirth for
women?
11. [15]What is the Jewish position on contraception and abortion?
12. [16]How does Judaism view Marriage?
13. [17]How do Jews find Mates?
14. [18]What is a Jewish Marriage?
15. [19]What happens before a Jewish Wedding?
16. [20]What happens during a Jewish Wedding?
17. [21]What happens after a Jewish Wedding?
18. [22]What should I wear to a Jewish wedding?
19. [23]Why is the glass broken at Jewish weddings?
20. [24]What is a Ketubah?
21. [25]What are the "Seven Blessings"?
22. [26]What does Judaism say about premarital sex?
23. [27]What are some good wedding greetings?
24. [28]Can a wife refuse to have marital relations with her husband?
25. [29]What should a man do if his wife leaves him for another man?
26. [30]Can a Jewish woman who has not been to a mikvah get married in
an Orthodox wedding?
27. [31]Is it possible for a Cohanim to marry a divorced Jewish woman?
28. [32]I've heard Jews can't get married on certain days. What are
they?
29. [33]What is the role of the parents or the rabbi at a wedding?
30. [34]How long after a spouse dies can the surviving partner
remarry? Must they marry their spouse's younger brother?
31. [35]What relationships are prohibited?
32. [36]What is the restriction on woman to sing in public and infront
of men?
33. [37]What can be done if the wife refuses to sign the get (divorce
decree)?
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.1: What are the different holidays?
Answer:
The holidays are described in the list below. R' Donin's book To Be a
Jew gives a good overview of the holidays from a traditional
perspective. The following is based on a summary posted on the net by
Robert Kaiser, which in turn was based on material from A Guide to
Jewish Religious Practice by Rabbi Isaac Klein, published by The
Jewish Theological Seminary of America. Note that liberal Jews do not
observe all of these holidays, nor do they all follow the practice of
two-days of observance of certain holidays in the diaspora. The
principal year-cycle events observed by liberal Jews are: Shabbat,
Rosh Hashana, Yom Kippur, Sukkot, Simchat Torah, Chanukkah, Tu
B'Shevat, Purim, Pesach (Passover), Lag B'Omer, Shavuot, and Tish'a
B'Av.
Note also that as the Jewish day runs from sundown to sundown,
holidays start the evening of the secular day before secular calendar
date of the holiday.
Rosh Hashanah (Tishri 1)
Also known as Yom Hadin, Yom Hazikaron (Day of Remembrance) and
Yom Teruah (Day of the sounding of the shofar). In traditional
congregations, the shofar is not sounded when Rosh Hashanah
falls on the Sabbath. This holiday celebrates the creation of
the world, and as such is the new year for calculating calendar
years, sabbatical and jubilee years, vegetable tithes, and
tree-planting (determining the age of a tree). This holiday is
characterized by the blowing of the shofar. During the
afternoon of the first day, many follow the practice of
tashlikh, symbolically casting away sins by throwing stones
into the waters. Rosh ha-Shanah, the 1st of Tishri, never falls
on a Sunday, Wednesday or Friday, in order that Yom Kippur
should never fall on a Friday or Sunday and Hoshana Rabbath
should not fall on the Sabbath.
The one practice unique to Rosh Hashanah is the sounding of the
shofar, in accord with the biblical command "... it is a day
when the horn is sounded" (Num. 29:1). Since it falls on the
first day of the month, when new months were proclaimed by the
Sanhedrin on the basis of the testimony of witnesses, there
existed an uncertainty as to when exactly Rosh Hashanah would
be. Even when the Temple stood, it was sometimes necessary to
celebrate two days of Rosh Hashanah due to the late arrival of
witnesses. As a result it was decided to celebrate two days
every year. Unlike other holidays, this is unrelated to the
diaspora.
Rosh Hashanah is also known as yom ha'din, "the day of
judgement", when according to the Talmud, God determines who
will be inscribed in the "book of life" and who will be
inscribed in the "book of death" for the coming year. The
decision is made on Rosh Hashanah and sealed ten days later at
the conclusion of Yom Kippur. One's behavior in the interim can
supposedly alter a harsh decree, thus the period from the
beginning of Rosh Hashanah to the conclusion of Yom Kippur is
known as the Ten Days of Repentance. During the Middle Ages, it
also became common to refer to Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur as
the Days of Awe.
After the service in the synagogue, it is customary for
worshippers to wish one another le-Shanah tovah tehatem
ve-tikatev (May you be inscribed and sealed for a good year).
It is traditional to eat bread and apples dipped in honey
followed by the meditation, "May it be Your will to grant us a
good and sweet year."
In Ashkenazi communities, a special custom known as Tashlikh
occurs; it invokes the recitation of biblical verses and a
prayer near a body of water. It is performed on the first day
of Rosh Hashanah (unless the first day falls on the Sabbath, in
which case it is deferred to the second day). The custom
symbolizes purification of sin in the water.
Fast of Gedaliah (Tishri 3)
This fast commemorates the slaying of Gedaliah Ben Akhikam,
whom Nebuchadnezzar appointed governor of Judah after the first
destruction of the Temple (Jeremiah 40:7, II Kings 25:22.). He
was assasinated on the third of Tishri (582 BC) by Ishmael son
of Nethaniah of the royal family. Nebuchadnezzar, king of
Babylon, had appointed Gedaliah governor of the Jews who
remained in Eretz Israel after the destruction of the First
Temple. After he was murdered, large numbers of the people fled
to Egypt (Jer. 40 and 41), and the last vestige of Jewish
autonomy in Judah came to an end. His death was the final blow
to hopes that the Jewish state might survive the Babylonian
domination. It is mentioned in the Torah (Zec. 8:19) as the
"fast of the seventh month". The sages established the fast in
"order to demonstrate that the death of the righteous is
equivalent to the destruction of the Temple, which is also
commemorated by the fast" (Rosh ha-Shanah 18b).
Yom Kippur (Tishri 10)
The day of repentance. The holiest and most solemn day of the
year. Its central theme is atonement and reconciliation. It is
described in the Torah as "It shall be a Sabbath of complete
rest for you" (Lev. 23:32). Traditionally, there are
prohibitions on eating, drinking, bathing, anointing the body,
wearing leather shoes, and conjugal relations. Most of these
prohibitions are followed across the spectrum of Judaism--such
is the importance of this holy day. The fast on Yom Kippur is
the only fast which can take place on the Sabbath.
Yom Kippur services begin with Kol Nidrei, which must be
recited before sunset. A Talit is donned for evening
prayers--the only evening service of the year in which this is
done. The Ne'ilah service is a special service held only on the
day of Yom Kippur, and deals with the closing of the holiday.
Yom Kippur comes to an end with the blowing of the shofar,
which marks the conclusion of the fast.
The Day of Atonement concludes the Ten Days of Repentance that
began on Rosh Hashanah; it is regarded as the day on which ones
fate is sealed for the coming year. At one timem the Temple
ritual performed by the high priest on the Day of Atonement was
the most important event of the whole year. It was the only
time he entered the Holy of Holies in order to atone for the
sins of the children of Israel. The precise order of his
activities is outlined in the Torah in the Book of Leviticus
(Ch. 16) and is described in the talmndic tractate (Yoma).
After the destruction of the Temple the notion of penitence
became the main feature of the Day of Atonement when the Jew
confesses his sins. A main feature of the services of the day
is the confession, of which two versions are read. The long
confession of 44 double, alphabetically arranged lines begins:
"For the sin wherein we have sinned ..." while the shorter form
is made up of single words or phrases, again in alphabetical
order, beginning with Ashamnu (We have trespassed).
Sukkot (Tishri 15)
The third Pilgrimage festival, it is also known as The Feast of
Booths (Tabernacles), The Feast of Ingathering, or just simply
The Hag (The Festival). Sukkot is an eight day festival: the
first two days are celebrated as full holidays, the following
five days (Hol Hamo'ed) are weekdays that retain some aspects
of the festival, the seventh day (Hoshanah Rabbah) and eighth
(Shemini Atzeret) days have special observances of their own.
Liberal congregations typically only celebrate the first and
eighth days.
Sukkot is also called "zman simchaseinu" (the time of our
rejoicing). This is because the Torah tells us that at that
time when we harvest it is a time for rejoicing. We also
rejoice in the coming start of a new cycle of Torah, as Simchat
Torah ends the Sukkot holiday. Succot is also known as Hag
ha-Asif, "The Festival of the Ingathering", due to the fact
that it falls during the season when the final summer produce
is gathered from the field. Another name is simply Ha-Hag, "The
Holiday" par excellence (Ex. 23:16, II Chron. 7:8).
The first day of Succot is a full holiday on which work is
prohibited. The next six days have their own special
regulations, but work is permitted under most circumstances.
Outside Eretz Israel, the second day of Succot is also observed
as a full holiday and the following five days are hol ha-mo'ed.
Succot has a number of unique observances. During the entire
seven days (prior to Sheini Atzeret), one is required to dwell
"in the succah", a temporary structure whose roof must be made
of materials that grow from the ground, e.g. palm fronds, tree
branches, bamboo poles. Dwelling in the succah commemorates the
temporary structures in which the Israelites dwelt during their
40 years wandering after the Exodus from Egypt (Lev. 23:42-43).
On each of the seven days of Succot, except the Sabbath, the
Four Species - the palm branch (lulav), citron (etrog), myrtle,
and willow - are taken up (after the appropriate benediction)
and waved. The species are held also during the recitation of
Hallel, and during the recitation of Hoshanot, when the entire
congregation joins in a procession encircling the bimah. One
such procession is held as part of the Shaharit service on each
of the seven days. The seventh day of Succot, i.e. the last day
of hol ha-mo'ed, is known also by the name Hoshana Rabbah, "The
Great Hoshana." On Hoshana Rabbah seven such processions are
held during and after which appropriate prayers are recited.
After these willow branches are beaten on the ground.
Sukkot commemorates the life of the Israelites in the desert
during their journey to the promised land. During their
wandering in the desert they lived in booths (Sukkot). Four
species of plants are used to celebrate the holiday: the lulav
(palm branch), etrog (lemon-like citron), myrtle, and willow.
The etrog is handled separately, while the other three species
are bound together, and are collectively referred to as the
lulav.
There is a special commandment in the Torah to rejoice on
Succot, "You shall hold the Feast of Booths for seven days. You
shall rejoice in your festival .. and you shall have nothing
but joy" (Deut. 16:13-15). In the Temple period, an observance
unique to Succot was the Simhat Bet ha-Sho'evah that
accompanied the special water libations of Succot, and the
celebrations at that time were especially joyous. Once in every
seven years, during Succot at the termination of the Sabbatical
Year (Shemitah), there was a public reading of certain passages
of the Book of Deuteronomy. This reading, known as hakhel, is
commanded in Deuteronomy 31:10-13.
During the five intermediate days of Sukkot, it is customary to
read the book of Ecclesiastes.
Hosha'nah Rabbah (The seventh day of Sukkot).
This day closes the period of repentance that began on Rosh
Hashanah. Tradition has made this day into a sequel to the Days
of Awe, lengthening the period of penitence and postponing the
day when final sentence is to be rendered.
On this day the worshippers go round the bimah of the synagogue
seven times while holding the four species. During the
circuits, piyyutim are recited with the refrain Hoshana (Save
us, we beseech thee). The name Hoshana Rabbah (the great
hoshana) derives from the sevenfold circuit. The source of this
custom is in Temple worship. During the festival of Succot,
according to tradition, the world is judged for water, and it
was the custom to take branches of the willow and go around the
alter saying "O Lord, deliver us! O Lord, let us prosper!" (PS.
118:25). Each day the alter would be circled once, and on the
seventh day seven times, The custom was then to beat the ground
with the willow branch after saying the hoshanot prayers.
In the Talmud, Hoshana Rabbah is referred to as a day when
everyone comes to the synagogue. Its special character was
emphasized during the time of the geonim, who saw it as the day
in which each human being receives from heaven a note on which
his fate is registered. And so there are those who greet each
other on this day with the Aramaic blessing a pitka tava, or in
Yiddish gut kveitl. Many and varied liturgical customs have
developed for Hoshana Rabbah. The most widespread are the
inclusion of the additional Sabbath and festival psalms in the
Shaharit (morning) service and the introduction of High
Holidays melody and usage for the ritual of taking out the
Torah from the ark. Another custom is to remain awake studying
Torah throughout the night. This custom was already known in
the thirteenth century, and its source is in the need to give
additional time to those who had not yet finished reading the
Torah and needed to finish by Simhat Torah.
Shemini Atzeret (Tishri 22)
The eighth day of Sukkot. In the Talmud it is written that "the
eighth day [of Sukkot] is a separate festival", so Sukkot is
really observed as seven days, and Shemini Atzeret is observed
as a separate holiday. It marks the beginning of the rainy
season in Israel.
The holiday is referred to in the Bible as atzeret, which means
assembly or closing. It is a closing in that it follows the
seven days of Succot and closes that holiday and the Tishri
holiday season. Thus the name Shemini Atzeret means the closing
or assembling of the eighth day, although obligations of Succot
are not observed.
By rabbinic tradition, Shemini Atzeret celebrates the
conclusion of the annual cycle of the reading of the Torah.
This celebration is known as Simhat Torah. In the Diaspora
(exile) Shemini Atzeret is a two-day festival, with the Torah
reading concluded on the second day, and it is common to refer
to the second day as Simhat Torah and only to the first day as
Shemini Atzeret. In Israel, where the festival lasts but one
day, the two names are used interchangeably.
In the Diaspora, a few observances of Succot "spill over" into
Shemini Atzeret, and according to some customs, the meals on
that day are taken in the succah, although the benediction
recited when eating in the succah is omitted. On the other
hand, the benediction She-heheyann, marking the advent of a new
holiday, is recited. In the Diaspora, the ceremony of bidding
farewell to the succah is performed on the first day of Shemini
Atzeret, whereas in Israel it is performed on the seventh and
final day of Succot.
The prayer for rain (Tefillat Geshem) is recited on Shemini
Atzeret and from the time of its recitation, the phrase mashiv
ha-ruah u-morid ha-geshem (He causes the wind to blow and the
rain to fall) is inserted in the second benediction of the
Amidah. This continues until Passover when the phrase is
replaced with morid ha-tal (He brings dew). Among Ashkenazi
Jews, the memorial prayer, Yizkor, is recited on Shemini
Atzeret.
Simhat Torah (Tishri 23)
The celebration that marks the conclusion of the annual cycle
of readings of the Torah (Keri'ar ha-Torah) in the synagogue.
Simhat Torah ia a rabbinic institution timed to coincide with
the biblical festival Shemini Atzeret, the eighth day of
Succot, and which in Eretz Israel lasts but one day.
Consequently, in Eretz Israel, Simhat Torah and Shemini Atzeret
are in practice one and the same holiday. In the Diaspora
(exile), where Shemini Atzeret lasts for two days, each day is
popularly known by a different name: the first day as Shemini
Atzeret, and the second day, when the reading of the final
portion of Deuteronomy is concluded, as Simhat Torah.
The last portion of the Torah is read on this day. The
following Shabbat the reading of the Torah starts again at the
beginning of Bereshis (Genesis). Festivities begin in the
evening with Ma'ariv. There are seven hakafot (processions) of
the Torah around the Synagogue. Services are joyous, and
humorous deviations from the standard service are allowed, and
even expected.
In antiquity there were actually two different traditions with
regard to the weekly Torah readings. In Eretz Israel, the cycle
lasted three years. In the Babylonian tradition, the cycle
began on the first Sabbath after the holidays of the month of
Tishri. This became the Sabbath of Genesis (Shabbath Bereshit).
The cycle was completed a year later on the last of the Tishri
holidays, i.e. Shemini Atzeret. In time, all Jewish communities
adopted the Babylonian system.
The central features of the Simhat Torah celebrations are the
hakkafot - the perambulations around the synagogue, with the
participants carrying the scrolls of the Torah, to the
accompaniment of joyous singing and dancing. The hakkafot are
held both in the Arvit and in the Shaharit services. After the
morning hakkafot, three scrolls are taken from the holy ark for
the Torah reading service. From the first scroll, the final
portion of Deuteronomy is read to conclude the entire Torah;
from the second scroll, the first chapter of Genesis with a few
additional verses in order to indicate there is no pause in the
cycle of the Torah readings; while from the third scroll, the
appropriate maftir is read relating to the ancient sacrificial
service for Shemini Atzeret. According to custom, everyone is
called for an aliyah la-Torah, and different practices have
developed in this connection. In some congregations, the Torah
reading is repeated several times in order to accommodate all
the worshippers with an aliyah in other groups of worshippers
ascend together for the reading; while in most non-Orthodox
synagogues women worshippers also approach the bimah for the
aliyot. Because of the emphasis on the Torah as the heritage of
every Jew, even young children who have not yet reached Bar
Mitzvah age are honored with special aliyah. They come up to
the bimah accommpanied by an adult who leads them in the
traditional blessing, as a large tallit is held over them. The
person honored with the last aliyah la-Torah is named Hatan
Torah, the Bridegroom of the Law, while the one called for the
first aliyah of the Genesis portion is named Hatan Bereshit,
the Bridegroom of Genesis. In modern Israel, the custom had
developed to organize a second hakkafot celebration on the
night after the conclusion of the festival. These second
hakkafot have become public celebrations and are frequently
held to the accompaniment of joyous orchestral music.
Chanukah (Kislev 25)
Also known as Hag Ha'urim (The Festival of Lights).
The story of Chanukah is preserved in the books of the First
and Second Maccabees. These books are not part of the Tanakh,
but are part of the Apocrypha (Hebrew historical and religious
material that was not codified as part of the Bible.) The
miracle of Chanukah is referred to in the Talmud, but not in
the books of the Maccabees. It marks the defeat of Assyrian
forces who had tried to prevent Israel from practicing Judaism.
Judah Maccabee and his brothers destroyed the overwhelming
forces, and rededicated the Temple. The eight day festival is
marked by the kindling of lights with a special Menorah, called
a Chanukiah.
The story of Chanukkah begins in the reign of Alexander the
Great, who conquered Syria, Egypt and Palestine, but allowed
the lands under his control to continue observing their own
religions and retain a certain degree of autonomy. During this
time, many Jews assimilated much of Hellenistic (Greek)
culture, adopting the language, the customs and the dress of
the Greeks, in much the same way that Jews in America today
blend into the secular American society. More than a century
later, a successor of Alexander, Antiochus IV, was in control
of the region. He began to oppress the Jews severely, placing a
Hellenistic priest in the Temple, massacring Jews, prohibiting
the practice of the Jewish religion, and desecrating the Temple
by requiring the sacrifice of pigs (a non-kosher animal) on the
altar. Two groups opposed Antiochus: a basically nationalistic
group led by Mattathias the Hasmonean and his son Judah
Maccabee, and a religious traditionalist group known as the
Chasidim, the forerunners of the Pharisees (no connection to
the modern Chasidism). They joined forces in a revolt against
both the assimilation of the Hellenistic Jews and oppression by
the Selucid Greek government. The revolution succeeded and the
Temple was rededicated. According to tradition, at the time of
the rededication, there was very little oil left that had not
been defiled by the Greeks. Oil was needed for the menorah in
the Temple, which was supposed to burn throughout the night
every night. There was only enough oil to burn for one day, yet
miraculously, it burned for eight days, the time needed to
prepare a fresh supply of oil for the menorah. An eight day
festival was declared to commemorate this miracle. Note that
the holiday commemorates the miracle of the oil, not the
military victory: Jews do not glorify war.
Chanukkah candles should be set at the doorway, or by the
window in a place where they can be seen from the outside. This
is in order to "publicize the miracle" (Heb. pirsume nisa).
Since one may not use the candles for any other pupose, not
even to light from candle to candle, one special additional
candle is used, called the shamash (the "serving candle"). Some
use wicks soaked in oil, but wax candles are perfectly
acceptable halakhically.
There is significance to how the candles are lit. The menorah
in the Temple was lit in two stages: the middle and rightmost
were lit, then the incense altar was set up for the day, then
the other five -- from right to left. We traditionally light
the Chanukah menorah from left to right. This is because over
the course of the holiday, we fill the menorah from right to
left. The first day we light only the rightmost oil / candle /
bulb, the second day the rightmost two, etc... And on each day
you want to start lighting with the new candle (or whatever) so
you end up starting with the leftmost one.
After the lighting of the candles the Hanukkah hymn Ma'oz Tzur
is sung. It is customary not to do any work during the time the
candles are burning, for this is the hour when all the family
may sit together and enjoy the traditional foods of the
festival, such as potatoe pancakes (latkes) and doughnuts
(sufganiyot) and play the traditional spinning top game
(dreydel). It is also customary to give money to children as a
Hanukkah present.
In the prayer services, the Al ha-Nissim paragraph is added to
the Amidah and to the Grace After Meals the full Hallel is
said. After the morning Amidah, each day the Torah is read from
Numbers (7:1-89), describing the sacrifices which were brought
by the princes at the dedication of the Temple.
The Fast of the Tenth of Tevet (Tevet 10)
The fast marks the beginning of the siege of Jerusalem by the
forces of Nebuchadnezzar, and is thus connected with the
destruction of Jerusalem. "And in the ninth year of his reign,
on the tenth day of the tenth month, Nebuchadnezzar moved
against Jerusalem with his whole army. He besieged it, and they
built towers against it all round" (II Kg. 25:1). The prophet
Ezekiel was commanded to "record this date, this exact day"
(Ezek. 24:2). Asarah be-Tevet is the fast mentioned in the Book
of Zechariah as the "fast of the tenth month" (Zech. 8:19). All
the general regulations and customs associated with public fast
days are observed, including the recitation of special selihot
on the particular theme of the day. If the fast falls on
Friday, it is not moved to Thursday or Sunday, since it is
mentioned in the Book of Ezekiel as the "exact day." This is
not observed by liberal Jews.
The Israeli Chief Rabbinate has chosen Asarah be-Tevet as Yom
ha-Kaddish ha-Klali, the memorial day for those who perished in
the Holocaust whose day of death is unknown.
Tu B'shevat (Shevat 15)
The day designed as Rosh ha-Shonah la-Ilanot - the New Year for
Trees. This day was set aside in the Mishna on which to bring
fruit tithes. It is still celebrated in modern times. Fruit
that began to grow after the flower stage (or to ripen,
according to Maimonides and the geonim, before Tu bi-Shevat,
belongs to the previous year. Fruit reaching the stage of
development after Tu bi-Shevat belongs to the new year. The
consequences of this determination is whether ma'aser sheni,
the "second" tithe (first, second, fourth, and fifth years of
the seven year cycle), or ma'aser ani, the tithe for the poor
(third and sixth years of the seven year cycle) are to be taken
from the fruit. The importance of this determination stems from
the prohibition against setting aside fruit from the new year's
crop as a tithe for the previous year's crop. To facilitate
compliance with the commandments of orlah and fourth year's
fruits, this date is used to determine the first four years
that the tree bears fruit. Tu bi-Shevat also marks the
beginning of the second year in a tree's life, so long as it
has taken root some time before Tu bi-Shevat. This date was
chosen "because most of the winter rains are over" (RH. 14a)
and the fruit has begun to ripen.
In the Diaspora (exile), Tu bi-Shevat has lost its halakhic and
agricultural significance, yet it is still regarded as a
festive day. Thus, no fasting or eulogizing is permitted, nor
is the Tahanun prayer recited. Rabbi Yitzchak Luria of Safed
and his disciples began the custom of eating fruit on this day.
For this purpose, they composed liturgical poems (piyyutim) and
a seder for Tu bi-Shevat eve, during which they drank four cups
of wine. This custom was adopted first by varios Sephardi
communities, and then by Aschkenazi Jewry who initiated the
custom to eat on Tu bi-Shevat the fruit for which Eretz Israel
is famous.
In modern Israel, this is the day when children plant trees in
the forests and in public places.
Fast of Esther (Adar 13)
A fast held on the 13th of Adar, the day preceding Purim. When
the 13th of Adar falls on the Sabbath the fast is moved back to
the preceding Thursday, the 11th. Ta'anit Ester is marked by
the usual observances of fast days, including the recitation of
penitential prayers (selihot) and the reading at both Shaharit
and Minhah of Exodus 30:11-14 (Va-Yedab).
It commemorates the fasts of Mordecai, Esther, and the Jews of
Shushan in reaction to the decree of Haman to liquidate the
entire Jewish people. According to the Talmud and other
sources, the 13th of Adar was formerly a feast day celebrating
the decisive victory of Judah Maccabee over the Syrian general
Nicanor. Because no fasting was permitted on "Nicanor's Day",
the Fast of Esther was held after Purim. But that usage was
annulled and the Fast of Esther was shifted more appropriately
to the day before Purim.
Purim (Adar 14)
This festival commemorates the events found in the Book of
Esther. The Shabbat preceding Purim is called Shabbat Zachor
(the Sabbath of remembrance). The day before Purim - Adar 13 -
is the Fast of Esther. The book of Esther is written in the
form of a scroll - the Megillah. It is chanted on Purim in the
evening, and on the next day after the Torah reading.
The holiday commemorates the Jewish people's escape from
extermination at the hands of Haman, minister to the Persian
king Ahasuerus. The word Purim means "lots", and the holiday is
so named as a reminder of the lots cast by Haman to determine
on what date the slaughter of the Jews would commence. The 13th
of Adar was the day marked for the Jews' destruction until a
royal decree rescinded the order, enabling the Jews to rout
their enemies within the Persian empire. On the 14th, the Jews
rested and celebrated their victory; thereafter it became the
day on which Purim was observed in most locales.
In leap years, Purim is celebrated during Adar II. In such
years, the 14th of Adar I is called Purim Katan (Little Purim)
and is marked by the omission of certain penitential prayers
normally recited on weekdays.
The following rabbinic commandments are observed on Purim:
1. The reading of the Megillah (the Book of Esther, which
narrates the story of Purim; it must be handwritten on a
scroll of parchment) twice; once during the evening and once
on the day of Purim. When the reader mentions the name of
Haman, it is customary for the assembled to make loud noises
in order to "blot out" the name of the oppressor.
2. Mishloah Manot, the sending of gifts of prepared food to
friends and neighbours. At least two types of food must be
sent to at least one person.
3. Se'udat Purim, a festive meal (se'udat mitzvah). The meal is
usually held in the afternoon, although it may be held in the
morning.
The historicity of the story as recorded in the Book of Esther,
as well as its apparent lack of a deep spiritual lesson, has
been questioned by some critical scholars. However, it would
seem that the main character of the festival is of a carnival
celebration. Since the Middle Ages, custom developed to
masquerade on Purim. Amongst Aschkenazim, a popular amusement
became the commical plays known as Purim Shpiel. In modern
Israel, carnival parades (Adloyada) are organized in the
streets.
In the course of Jewish history, it often occured that
individuals and communities who had been saved in a miraculous
fashion established a special "Purim" each year to commemorate
the date. The best known of such "private Purims" is that of
the Jews of Frankfurt-am-Main, commemorating the community's
deliverance in 1616. Frankfurt's notorius anti-Semite, Vincent
Fettmilch, who called himself the new Haman, was hanged, and
the Jews whom he had expelled returned to their homes. As a
result of the events of that period, the Jews of Frankfurt
proclaimed the 27th of Elul as a day of fasting and repentance,
and the 20th of Adar as Purim Winz - the Purim of Vincent.
Shushan Purim (Adar 15)
In the Book of Esther, the rejoicing in the walled city of
Shushan took place one day later (Adar 15) than elsewhere (Adar
14). Therefore, this day has come to be known as Shushan Purim.
This is because the Jews of Shushan, capital of Persia, were
granted a one-day extension to eliminate their enemies; hence,
their celebrations began on the 15th. Since Shushan itself was
a walled city, it was decreed that in deference to the cities
of the Land of Israel, which lay in ruin at the time, cities
walled at the time of the Israelite conquest would celebrate on
the same date as the Jews of Shushan. The 15th is, therefore
known as Shushan Purim.
To the present day, Purim is observed on Adar 15 in such cities
--- most notably Jerusalem --- as were walled cities at the
time of the events described in the Book of Esther.
New Year for Kings (Nisan 1)
Nisan is the first month of the Hebrew calendar; in Mishnaic
times it was celebrated as the New Year for Kings and months.
In biblical times, kings reckoned the years of their reign from
the first of Nisan. If a king mounted the throne on the
previous day, then the Ist of Nisan marked the beginning of the
"second year" of his reign. In addition to this "new year", the
Mishna sets up three other New Year's: Elul 1, for animal
tithes, Tishrei 1 (Rosh HaShanah), and Shevat 15, the New Year
for Trees/fruit tithes. Ever since the Babylonian diaspora,
only the Rosh HaShanah and Tu B'Shevat are still celebrated.
Tzom Bechorot: The Fast of the First Born (Nisan 14)
In commemoration of the slaying of the first-born sons of the
Egyptians as the Tenth Plague visited on Pharaoh, while their
Hebrew counterparts were "passed over" (i.e. spared, hence the
English name Passover for Pesach), first-born sons are required
to observe a minor fast on the day before Passover. However, if
they attend a simcha (joyous occasion) such as a wedding or a
siyum (a celebration marking the completion of the study of a
tractate of the Talmud), they are allowed to break the fast.
Therefore most Orthodox synagogues arrange for a siyum on that
day.
Pesach (Nisan 15)
The first Pilgrimage Festival (recall that Nisan, not Tishri,
is the first month of the Hebrew calendar). Pesach commemorates
the liberation of the Israelites from Egypt. The first seder is
on the 14th. On the night of the 15th, the second seder is
held, and the counting of the Omer starts. The Omer is a
counting down of the days from the time of the departure from
Egypt, until the time the Torah was received at Mount Sinai.
Pesach is also called "zman cheruteinu" (the time of our
freedom), because it is the time when the Jewish people were
freed from Egyptian slavery.
The holiday is called the "Passover" because God "passed over"
the Israelite houses when smiting the Egyptians with the tenth
plague (Ex. 12:23, 12:27). It is also called the Festival of
Unleavened Bread since the only bread that may be eaten during
the festival is unleavened (matzah), and the Festival of Spring
because of the command to "observe the month of Abib(spring)
and offer a passover sacrifice" (Deut. 16:1). Because the
Jewish lunar year is 11 days shorter than the solar year, the
Jewish calendar was adjusted so Passover should always fall in
the spring.
Passover's first and last days ( in the Diaspora, the first two
and last two) are holy days on which most work is forbidden,
and the days in between are known as hol ha'mo'ed ("the
festival's weekdays") or "the intermediate days." The principal
observance of the festival is the eating of matzah and the
removal of all hametz (leaven or any products containing it)
from one's abode prior to the festival.
In antiquity, the central Passover rite was the sacrifice of
the paschal offering - ofter called simply "the Pesah" - on the
14th of Nisan, and the eating of it that evening together with
matzah and maror (bitter herbs). The Samaritans continue to
perform this rite on Mount Gerizim, but for other Jews the
Seder became the central rite after the destruction of the
Second Temple.
The Passover prayer services are essentially the same as those
of other pilgrim festivals. The first days Musaf service
includes the prayer of dew , the petition for rain (Heb.
Tefillat Geshem) , is no longer recited. In the Arvit (evening)
service for the second day, the counting of the Omer begins.
The laws of Passover are discussed in Pesahim, the third
tractate in the Order Mo'ed. It contains ten chapters with
Gemara in both Talmuds and Tosefta.
Sefirah (The counting)
Sefirat Ha'Omer
Also known simply as The Omer, this 49 day period between
Pesach and Shavuot is defined by the Torah as the period to
bring special offerings to the temple in Jerusalem; This makes
physical the spiritual connection between Pesach and Shavuot.
Pesach marks the liberation from Egypt, and Shavuot marks the
receiving of the Torah. The counting begins the second night of
Pesach.
Traditionally, the Sefirah is a time of sadness. During this
period, 12,000 of Rabbi Akiva's disciples died. This occurred
during the Hadrianic persecution that followed the Bar Kokhba
revolt, in which Rabbi Akiva was involved. During this period
(with one exception), customarily no weddings take place, no
hair is cut, and no activities occur involving dancing and
music. The period is more culturally-dependant than the ban
itself. In some cultures, the period is from Pesach to Lag
B'Omer. Others go from Rosh Chodesh Iyyar to Shavuot. Yom
Haatzmaut and Yom Yerushalaim are days on which people who
celebrate them take haircuts or take haircuts the day before.
Yom Ha'Shoah (Nisan 27)
Holocaust remembrance day, which is dedicated to the memory of
those who perished in the Holocaust. It was on that day in 1943
that the Nazis finally suppressed the Warsaw ghetto revolt. On
this day the people unite in remembering the six million
victims, the ghetto fighters, and the partisans.
All places of entertainment and restaurants are closed for the
24 hours commencing on the eve of Memorial Day. Candles are lit
on public buildings and in synagogues, flags are lowered to
half-mast and Yad Vashem conducts a state memorial service. The
president of the State of Israel, former members of the
underground and partisans, survivors and members of the public
participate.
See also: Yom Yerushalayim.
Yom Hazikaron (Iyar 4)
Day of remembrance. A memorial day to those who fell in active
service in Israel's wars. Observed on the 4th of Iyyar, the eve
of Independance Day. This date was determined by the Israel
government in 1949. On this day all places of entertainment
throughout the country are closed by law, flags are flown at
half mast and memorial candles burn on public buildings and in
synagogues. People visit military cemeteries and official
memorial services are held. Since 1968 an official service is
held at the Western Wall to mark the beginning of Yom
ha-Zikkaron . At both Arvit (evening) and Shaharit (morning)
services in many synagogues a special memorial prayer is
recited. A siren is sounded during the morning and all activity
is halted as citizens observe a two-minute silence. After the
closing ceremony of Remembrance Day, the festivities of
Independence Day begin.
See also: Yom Yerushalayim.
Yom Ha'atzma'ut (Iyar 5)
Israel Independence Day, which commemorates the establishment
of the State of Israel on the 5th of Iyyar (14 May 1948).
National celebrations begin with a ceremony on Mount Herzl in
Jerusalem, near Herzl's grave, presided over by the chairman of
the Knesset. National flags are hoisted in the streets and on
the buildings, and people celebrate the holiday with dancing in
the street, parties, day trips and outings. For many years the
central event of the day was the Israel Defence Forces military
parade. In recent years the central event is the Bible Quiz for
Jewish youth. Each year on the day of the Israel Prize is
awarded to outstanding figures in their particular field. In
many synagogues a special service, which includes Hallel, is
recited. Many people celebrate with a festive meal on the eve
of the holiday.
See also: Yom Yerushalayim.
Lag Ba'Omer (Iyar 18--The 33rd day of the Omer)
Thirty-third day of Omer counting, as indicated by the
numerical equivalent of the Hebrew letters lamed (30) and
gimmel (3), hence the word lag. . Lag Ba'Omer takes place
during the Sefirah. During this day there was a break in the
Hadrianic persecution. Weddings and joyful occasions are
permitted.
Lag Ba'Omer is considered a joyous day on which the
semi-mourning observed during the seven-week Omer period is
suspended. It is commemorated as the day of the cessation of
the plague in which 24,000 disciples of Rabbi Akiba were said
to have died during the Bar Kokhba revolt (TB. Yev. 62b). It
also marks the yahrzeit of Rabbi Simeon bar Yohai. Lag ba-Omer
has been traditionally celebrated with the lighting of bonfires
on the eve and during the day, and with hiking excursions in
the countryside. Sporting events and games with bows and arrows
are held, as a symbolic remembrance of the Bar Kokhba revolt
and the physical prowess and courage required of his soldiers.
In Israel, it is customary to light bonfires at the tombs of
Simeon bar Yohai and his son Eliezer at Meron, near Safed, and
at the tomb of Simeon the Just in Jerusalem. Throngs congregate
to sing and dance, and to honor the memories of Simeon bar
Yohai and Rabbi Akiba, who were among the main rabbinic
supporters of anti-Roman resistance
In hasidic circles, three-year-old boys are traditionally given
their first haircut at these festivals. Older Torah students
and adults celebrate the day as the "Scholars' Holiday". Lag
ba-Omer is also a traditional day for wedding ceremonies to be
held because of the general halakhic injunction against
weddings during the period of the Omer counting.
Yom Yerushalayim (Iyar 28)
Yom Yerushalayim (Jerusalem Day) marks the reunification of
Jerusalem and The Temple Mount under Jewish rule almost 1900
years after the destruction of the Second Temple. This
reunification occured during the Six Day War (June 1967). On
this day East Jerusalem, including the Temple Mount, was
captured by the Israeli Defence Forces. Many events take place
in Jerusalem to mark Jerusalem Day. A memorial service is held
on Ammunition Hill, where many paratroopers fell during the
battles. Large numbers of Israelis pay a visit to Jerusalem to
pray at the Western Wall and tour the city. The Chief Rabbinate
has composed a service of special prayers, including the
recital of Hallel, for the occasion.
The Hallel [a series of prayers of praise] is recited by most
Orthodox, Conservative, and Reform congregations. Israel's
Chief Rabbis advocate reciting Hallel with a blessing.
The new holidays of Yom Yerushalayim, Yom Hazikaron, Yom
Ha'atzma'ut and Yom HaShoah are still too new for any consensus
to have developed in the Jewish community as to the appropriate
liturgy. Many liberal Jews observe them (and create new
liturgies for them). Traditional Jews vary in the observance of
these days. Some observe them. Some prefer to commemorate
Churban Europa on Tisha B'Av along with the other catastrophes
which have befallen the Jewish people. Some celebrate the
Israel-related days, but don't assign them religious
significance, and others ignore all three.
Shavuot (Sivan 6, 7)
The second Pilgrimage Festival, it is also known as The Feast
of Weeks, Hag Haqatsir (The harvest festival), Hag HaShavuot,
or just 'Atseret (The conclusion of Pesach). [Literally, the
Hebrew word 'atseret' means conclusion.] Shavuot marks the end
of the counting of the Omer; it occurs on the day after the
conclusion of the counting of the 49 days of the Omer, in
accordance with the biblical command to count seven complete
weeks from the morrow of Passover (Lev. 23:15-16). According to
Rabbinic tradition, the Ten Commandments were given on this
day. It is customary to read the Book of Ruth on this day.
Shavuot is also called "zman matan toratanu" (the time of the
giving of the Torah).
The interpretation of the counting of the Omer was the subject
of a bitter dispute between two parties within the Jewish
people during the Second Temple period. The Pharisses, the
party that accepted the Oral Law and claimed that it was the
only authoritative interpretation of the Bible, took the words
"day of rest" to refer to the opening holiday of Passover, on
which no work could be performed. The Sadducees, who repudiated
the Oral Law, took the phrase literally (in Hebrew the text
reads "Sabbath") as the first Sabbath of Passover. Accordingly,
the date of the holiday came out differently for each of these
groups, with the Sadducees sometimes celebrating Shavuot as
many as six days later than the Pharisses.
Shavuot has an agricultural character and is known in the
sources as the "Feast of the Harvest" (Hag ha-Katzir, Ex.
23:16) and "the day of the first fruits" (Yom ha-Bikkurim, Num.
28:26). The main theme of the holiday, however is the
commemoration of the giving of the Torah on Mount Sinai, which
by tradition (as inferred from verses in Exodus 19) occured on
the 6th of Sivan. When the Temple stood. the most salient
aspect of the holiday, aside from its various sacrifices, was
the bringing of the special "twin loaves" (lehem ha-bikkurim)
made from the newly cut wheat. From Shavuot throughout the
summer the first fruits of the seven species (wheat, barley,
grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives and dates).
Among certain Jewish communities, the mourning rites of the
Omer period end with the advent of the month of Sivan, and it
becomes permissible, among other things, to hold weddings. The
3rd, 4th, and 5th of Sivan are known as Sheloshet Yemei
Hagbalah the Three Days of Restriction. These are the days when
the children of Israel were restricted from approaching Mount
Sinai prior to revelation, and certain holiday customs are
observed at this time. Thus the propitiatory prayers called
Tahanun are not recited and eulogies may not be delivered. The
2nd of Sivan is known as the yom ha-meyuhas, the day of
importance, coming as it does between the first of the month
(Rosh Hodesh), a semi-holiday, and the Three Days of
Restriction. In some communities, the Sabbath prior to Shavuot
is known as the Sabbath of the Bride (Shabbat Kallah), since
the Torah, given on Shavuot, is metaphorically described as
Israel's bride. These communities maintain the custom of
reading a ketubbah (marriage contract) between the Torah and
the Jewish people, at the time when the Torah is removed for
reading from the holy ark.
On the evening of Shavuot Arvit is recited with the festival
Amidah. It is customary to take care to recite the Arvit after
dark in order to make certain that the holiday is begun after
the completion of the seven full weeks of the Omer period. The
Torah reading consists of the account of the giving of the
Torah in Exodus (19-20) and is preceded by the recitation of
Akdamut, a special hymn written in Aramaic. Akdamut has 90
lines and details a debate between the Jewish people and the
nations and tells of the reward that awaits the righteous in
the next world. The Torah reading is followed by the festival
Musaf. In some congregations, liturgical poems known as Azharot
are recited as part of the Musaf. These are concerned with the
613 commandments. Certain Sephardi congregations recite the
azharot as well as the Book of Ruth during the Minah service
instead.
In the sixteenth century, the kabbalists instituted the custom
of remaining awake the entire night of Shavuot and complied a
lectionary known as Tikkun Leil Shavuot (Tikkun for Shavuot
Eve), which comprises the first chapters of the sacred books
and which is studied at the time. In time the custom of
studying any subject of Jewish religious interest developed,
but the observance is still known as Tikkun Leil Shavuot. Those
who remain awake for the entire night recite the morning prayer
service, Shaharit, at dawn. In Jerusalem, it has become
customary to walk to the Western Wall for the entire morning
service or at least for the Musaf, and since 1967, when
Jerusalem was reunited, many thousands can be seen streaming
into the Western Wall compound from all over the city. A very
ancient custom is to eat dishes of milk and honey on Shavuot in
keeping with the verse in Song of songs (4:11) that describes
the Torah as "Honey and milk under your tongue."
The Fast of the Seventeenth of Tamuz (Tamuz 17)
Mentioned by the prophet Zechariah (Zech. 8:19) as "the fast of
the fourth month", the 17th of Tamuz marks the beginning of the
destruction of Jerusalem. On this day in 70 C.E. the Romans
breached the walls encircling Jerusalem, which led to the
destruction of the second Temple. (During the siege preceding
the first destruction of the Temple in 587 B.C.E., the
Babylonians breached the walls on the ninth of Tamuz (Jeremiah
39:2), but both events are commemorated on the same date. The
actual destruction of the Temple itself took place on the 9th
of Av--both in 587 B.C.E. and 70 C.E. See Tisha B'Av.)
"Five catastrophies befell our fathers on the 17th of Tammuz:
the tablets (of the Covenant) were broken, the daily Temple
sacrifices were suspended, the walls to the city were breached,
Apostamus burned a Torah scroll, and an idol was erected in the
Temple" (Ta'an. 26a). The tablets were broken because Moses
ascended Mount Sinai on the 7th of Sivan, remained there for 40
days, and descended to find the people worshipping the Golden
Calf on the 17th of Tammuz. The daily sacrifices were suspended
during the civil of the Hasmoneans John Hyrcanus and
Aristobulus because the Greeks at that time laid seige to
Jerusalem and there was no access to sacrificial animals. The
inhabitants of Jerusalem would lower money over the city wall
in a basket, and the enemy would send up lambs in return. "On
one occasion, a pig was sent up instead, and it dug its hooves
into the wall, and the earth shook over an area of 500
parasangs ... Apostamus burned the Torah scroll." It is not
known precisely to what this refers. However, some identify it
with the incident in which the Roman procurator discovered a
Torah scroll, desecrated, and burned it.
For the traditional, this day is observed by fasting. The fast
begins at sunrise and concludes at sunset of the same day. this
applies to all fasts, with the exception of Yom Kippur and
Tisha B'Av, both of which begin on the preceding night. Fasting
is the only restriction imposed; Working and bathing as usual
are permitted.
The fast of the Seventeenth of Tammuz extends only from dawn
until dark. During the Shaharit service, special penitential
prayers (selihots) are recited. The Torah is read at both
Shaharit and Minhah services, and a haftarah (prophetic
reading) is chanted as on other fast days. The Seventeenth of
Tammuz initiates a period of mourning, known as bein
ha-metzarim, "between the straits", which concludes three weeks
later with the fast of Tishah be-Av.
The Three Weeks (Tamuz 17-Av 9) and The Nine Days (Av 1-Av 9)
For the traditional, the days between the 17th of Tamuz and the
9th of Av are considered days of mourning, for they witnessed
the collapse of Jerusalem. In the Ashkenazi Jewish minhag
(custom), weddings and other joyful occasions are traditionally
not held in this period.
A further element is added within the three weeks, during the
nine days between the 1st and 9th day of Av. During this
period, the pious refrain from eating meat and drinking wine,
except on Shabbat or at a Seudat Mitzvah (such as a Pidyon
Haben or completing the study of a religious text.) Many
minhags observe a ban on cutting one's hair during this period.
However, the length of time varies: some refrain only during
the week in which Tisha B'Av falls.
Tisha B'Av (Av 9)
The saddest day of the Jewish calendar. On this day both the
First and Second Temples were destroyed. (587 b.c.e. and 70
c.e.) On this day in 1290, King Edward I signed the edict
compelling the Jews to leave England. The Jewish expulsion from
Spain in 1492 also occurred on this day. Tisha B'av also marked
the outbreak of World War I. The date is also associated with
the final collapse of the abortive Bar Kokhba revolt (135 CE).
The Tishah be-Av fast begins at sundown and lasts 24 hours
(like Yom Kippur), differentiating it from the other minor
fasts that begin at sunrise. The rules for observing the fast
day are similar to those of Yom Kippur. If Tishah be-Av falls
on a Sabbath, it is deferred to the following day, Sunday. Like
Yom Kippur, the Minhah service is held early in the day and a
last meal is eaten prior to sunset.
On Tishah be-Av, Torah study, with the exception of those
portions concerning mourning or the destruction of the Temple,
is forbidden. Before the Arvit service all leather shoes are
removed, the curtain is removed from the holy ark, and prayers
are recited in a subdued tone. after the service worshippers
sit on a low stool or on the floor as the Book of Lamentations
is read and a few kinot (elegies) are recited.
Neither the tallit nor the tefillin are worn during the
Shaharit service (Yemenite Jews do wear the tallit. The service
includes the reading of the Torah, "When you have begotten
children and children's children" (Deut. 4:25) and a prophetic
reading (haftarah), "I will make an end to them - declares the
Lord" (Jer. 8:13). After the Torah is returned to the holy ark,
a larger number of kinot are recited. In some communities,
lamentations is recited again.
It is the custom not to exchange normal greetings and to
refrain from work, until midday. At the Minhah service, the
tallit and tefillin are worn and their respective blessings
recited. The Torah reading and prophetic reading at this
service are the same as on minor fast days.
A special prayer is added to the blessing of Boneh Yerushalayim
(Builder of Jerusalem) during the Amidah.
New Year for Animal Tithes (Taxes) (Elul 1)
This day is set up by the Mishna as the New Year for animal
tithes, which roughly corresponds to a new year for taxes. This
is similar to the tax deadline in the United States of America,
on April 15. The date is disputed; Some authorities claim that
it was observed on Tishrei 1 (Rosh HaShanah). The actual date
is now merely academic; This holiday has not been observed
since the Babylonian diaspora.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.2: What are the dates of the upcoming Jewish holidays?
Answer:
[The following is courtesy of the Hebcal program, mentioned in
[5]Section 5.3. Hebcal also provides an interactive Jewish calendar at
[6]http://www.hebcal.com/]
2003:
* January: 4 Rosh Chodesh Shvat; 18 Tu B'Shvat
* February: 2-3 Rosh Chodesh Adar I; 17 Purim Katan
* March: 4/2003 Rosh Chodesh Adar II; 16 Ta'anit Esther; 17 Purim;
18 Shushan Purim
* April: 2-3 Rosh Chodesh Nisan; 16 Erev Pesach - Taanit B'chorot;
17-24 Pesach I-VIII; 29 Yom HaShoah
* May: 2-3 Rosh Chodesh Iyyar; 6 Yom HaZikaron; 7 Yom Ha'atzmaut; 20
Lag B'Omer; 29 Yom Yerushalayim
* June: 1 Rosh Chodesh Sivan; 6-7 Shavuot I-II; 30 Rosh Chodesh
Tamuz
* July: 1 Rosh Chodesh Tamuz; 17 Shiva Assar B'Tamuz; 30 Rosh
Chodesh Av
* August: 7 Tish'a B'Av; 28-29 Rosh Chodesh Elul
* September: 26 Erev Rosh Hashana; 27-28 Rosh Hashana I-II; 29 Tzom
Gedalia
* October: 5 Erev Yom Kippur; 6 Yom Kippur; 11-17 Sukkot I-VII; 18
Shmini Atzeret; 19 Simchat Torah; 26-27 Rosh Chodesh Cheshvan
* November: 25-26 Rosh Chodesh Kislev
* December: 20-27 Chanukah I-VII
2004:
* January: 4 Asara B'Tevet; 24 Rosh Chodesh Shevat
* February: 7 Tu B'Shvat; 21 Shabbat Shekalim; 22-23 Rosh Chodesh
Adar
* March: 4 Ta'anit Esther; 6 Shabbat Zachor; 7 Purim; 8 Shushan
Purim; 13 Shabbat Parah; 20 Shabbat HaChodesh; 23 Rosh Chodesh
Nisan
* April: 3 Shabbat HaGadol ; 6 Ta'anit Bechorot/Erev Pesach; 6-13
Pesach; 18 Yom HaShoah; 21-22 Rosh Chodesh Iyyar; 25 Yom
HaZikaron; 26 Yom HaAtzma'ut
* May: 9 Lag B'Omer; 19 Yom Yerushalayim; 21 Rosh Chodesh Sivan;
26-27 Shavuot
* June: 19-20 Rosh Chodesh Tamuz
* July: 6 Tzom Tammuz; 19 Rosh Chodesh Av; 24 Shabbat Hazon; 27
Tish'a B'Av; 31 Shabbat Nachamu
* August: 17-18 Rosh Chodesh Elul
* September: 16-17 Rosh Hashana 5765; 18 Shabbat Shuva; 19 Tzom
Gedaliah; 25 Yom Kippur; 30 Sukkot
* October: 1-6 Sukkot II-VII; 7 Shmini Atzeret; 8 Simchat Torah;
15-16 Rosh Chodesh Cheshvan
* November: 14 Rosh Chodesh Kislev
* December: 7-15 Chanukah; 13 Rosh Chodesh Tevet; 22 Asara B'Tevet
Since the Jewish day starts at sunset, all of these holidays (except
those marked "Erev", which means "Evening") start at sunset on the
civil date before. (See [7]Subject 7.2 for details.)
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.3: How can I get a Jewish calendar?
Answer:
Chabad-Lubavitch and other organizations publish calendars which
include sunset times for various cities. Jewish funeral homes often
distribute Jewish calendars to local synagogues around Rosh Hashana.
Jewish bookstores and gift shops sell them as well.
In terms of software to generate Hebrew calendars, there are a number
of resources available:
* Unix:
+ Gnu Emacs. User's of gnu emacs will discover that there is a
Jewish calendar built into Gnu Emacs. You invoke the calendar
via M-x calendar. Once in the calendar, a number of different
commands are available. In this context, it is worth noting
that the list of holidays obtained from M-x holidays includes
Jewish holidays, the key S can be used to obtain
sunrise/sunset times for the selected date (you need to set
latitude and longitude first; the relevant variables are
calendar-latitute, calendar-longitude, and
calendar-location-name. To display the hebrew date for a
given day, use the sequence p h (calendar-print-hebrew-date),
and to move to a date on the hebrew calendar, use g h
(calendar-goto-hebrew-date).
+ [5]Remind. This a sophisticated multi-lingual calendar and
alarm system for UNIX. It produces web-based and PostScript
calendars, and includes a powerful scripting language and
friendly graphical front-end. It was developed by [6]David
Skoll. It is available at
[7]http://www.roaringpenguin.com/remind.html.
+ [8]Hebcal. This is a Perpetual jewish calendar program by
[9]Danny Sadinoff.
* Windows:
+ HEBREW CALENDAR FOR WINDOWS. Provides full-month calendars
for Jewish/Hebrew date conversion. Holidays displayed with
information available. Sunset/Sunrise, Shabbat times and
zmanim. Anniversaries may be stored in personal database.
Customized calendar printouts. Torah and Haftarah readings.
Halakhic times of day (zmanim). Covers 1600-2200 (5360-5960).
Clipboard, Notepad, and Cardfile support. Extensive city
database. Lots more features. Available from the [10]Home
Page of the Calendar Maven (<http://www.calendar-maven.com>)
+ Kaluach. This program displays a full month (either Hebrew or
civil) on the screen with all Jewish holidays, fast days
(ta'aniot), Shabbat parshiot, counting of the omer (sfirat
haomer), birchat hachama, and more. It provides daily
halachic times (zmanim): alot hashachar, earliest time for
tallit and tefillin, netz hachama (sunrise), latest times for
shema and tefillah, chatzot hayom, mincha gedolah and
ketanah, shkiat hachama (sunset), tzeit hakochavim. It also
provides Shabbat times: hadlakat nerot (candle lighting) and
tzeit shabbat (the end of Shabbat); Halachic times calculated
according to selected shitot and location; and a choice of
Hebrew or English language display (Hebrew support even under
standard English Windows-- the Hebrew date is displayed in
the Windows 95 status line when the window is minimized.
Users can add personal data such as birthdays, anniversaries,
and yahrzeits. Additional information available at
[11]http://members.tripod.com/~kaluach.
* The Web:
+ Steven Weintraub's [12]JEWISH CALENDAR CALCULATION. This page
gives a lot of information on the hebrew calendar, including
code in various forms, a CGI interface, and a JAVA calendar
+ [13]HaVeinu L'Shalom. This organization provides an online
perpetual calendar in day or month at a time, as well as
Kaballah/Jewish Astrology Calendar.
+ There is a JavaScript Jewish calendar at
[14]http://sites.netscape.net/cgiwpg/calendar.htm
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.4: Why do some people take off one day, and others two?
Answer:
The Jewish calendar is based on a lunar system in which each month
begins at the new moon. A month can consist of 29 or 30 days.
Originally the determination of the new moon was by the Sanhedrin
(highest rabbinic court, 70 members) when witnesses declared that they
had seen the new moon. Once the Sanhedrin declared the new month,
messages were sent to the various communities stating which day (of
the two possible) began the new month.
Note that this does not say that the Sanhedrin did not know the
methods of calculating the new moon, but merely that proper procedure
required the witnesses. The astronomical calculations could be used to
verify the validity of the witnesses, if necessary.
In those months in which holidays occurred, (such as Nisan for
Pesach), the exact date was critical for determining when the holiday
began. Since the messengers could not reach every community in the
time allotted, those communities they could not reach would celebrate
both possible days.
In 325 CE, the Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) administration in what
was then Palestine limited the rights of the Sanhedrin to disseminate
calendrical information. Hillel II, the Sanhedrin President at the
time, published a set of rules for the maintenance of the calendar,
which is still used today.
The Sanhedrin also determined that those communities outside of Eretz
Yisrael would continue to keep the second day of the holiday because
of a principal "Minhag Avoseinu Beyadeinu", the customs of our fathers
[remain] in our hands, and to remember the law for when the Sanhedrin
is reestablished and the month is determined by witnesses again.
Reform Jews believe that since the calendar is defined exactly, there
is no longer a need to keep the second day of Yom Tov outside of Eretz
Yisrael. However some Reform Jews do choose to observe two days.
Many Orthodox Jews feel that once the Sanhedrin is reestablished, that
the declaration will be disseminated by CNN [Cable News Network] or
maybe even soc.culture.jewish, and even the Jews outside of Eretz
Yisrael will only be required to keep one day. However, until that
time comes, the requirement is to maintain the calendar as established
by the original Sanhedrin, which includes two days.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.5: Why does the Jewish day start at sundown?
Answer:
Because this is how the Torah describes days, starting in the book of
Genesis: "And there was evening, and there was morning, one day."
(Gen. 1:5). As another example, the Torah refers to Yom Kippur
explicitly as "from evening to the next evening".
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.6: What are the origins of the Chanukah Dreidel?
Answer:
Both dreidel and grogger are traditional European toys, although the
names they go by in non-Jewish cultures are quite different from the
ones we use.
The English (and Latin) name for the dreidel is teetotum -- and you
can look up its history in the Oxford English Dictionary. It turns out
to be an ancient gambling toy, known in ancient Greece, and with
national variations on the letters on the faces of the toy. In all
national variants, the letters are a mnemonic for the rules of the
game. For example, the traditional English letters are:
T - Take all
H - Take half
N - Nothing
P - Put
Although the fact that the Dreidel goes back to Greek times makes it
possible that it was known in the Hashemonean kingdom, the fact that
the Hebrew letters on the sides make a mnemonic that fits the pattern
described above when used as initial letters of Yiddish words suggests
that the dreidel entered Jewish culture through the Yiddish speaking
Ashkenazi and is not of ancient origin.
The OED entry for teetotum says that that the toy fell out of use
because cards were far better gambling games, and that by the 1890's,
it had been reduced to a children's toy in the English speaking world.
In the Jewish world, according to Schauss's guide to Jewish Holy Days,
the playing card fad of the middle ages led the rabbis issuing a
series of edicts condemning excessive gambling. They didn't ban the
dreidel, though, perhaps because the "A great miracle happened there"
interpretation of the letters allowed the dreidel to escape their
wrath.
As to the grogger, the rest of the English speaking world calls them
ratchets. You can buy orchestral ratchets from the precussion section
of good music supply catalogs, and in much of the world, the ratchet
is an important part of the equipment you take to things like soccer
matches and new-years parties.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.7: Is it appropriate for Christians to "celebrate" Pesach
using the form of a seder meal?
Answer:
Although there have been demonstration Seders at a goodly number of
Christian churches, the key word is "demonstration". These are
educational experiences, rather than observances. Note that there is
no historical basis for the assumption the the Last Supper was a
Seder.
Note that the Seder states "We do this because of the Eternal One did
for US, when he led us out of the land of Egypt." The Seder can not be
separated from Jewish peoplehood.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.8: What are the months of the Jewish Year?
Answer:
Note: This is based on material at
[5]http://www.rrz.uni-hamburg.de/rz3a035/jew_fest.html.
The Jewish calendar has its months determined on a lunar basis, and
its years on a solar basis. As the lunar year consists of about 354
days and the solar year has 365.25 days, the lunar cycle must be
adjusted to the solar calendar in order that Passover should always
fall in the "month of Abib" (Deut. 16:1). This adjustment is made by
having a leap year seven times in each nineteen-year cycle;
specifically, in the 3rd, 6th, 8th, 11th, 14th, 17th, and 19th years
of the cycle. In a leap year, an extra month of Adar (Adar Sheni) is
added into the calendar.
The months in the Jewish calendar are as follows:
* Nisan. The first month of the Jewish calendar (Ex. 12:2); the
seventh from the beginning of the civil year. The name appears in
the Bible only in Esther 3:7 and Nehemiah 2:1. In Ex. 13:4, 23:15,
34:18; Deut. 16:1, it is called "the month of Abib (Spring).
According to one tradition, the Creation occured in the month of
Nisan. It is also the month in which the biblical patriarchs were
born, Moses led the Jews out of Egypt, and the final redemption is
to take place (TB. RH 11a). In biblical times, kings reckoned the
years of their reign from the first of Nisan. It is customary
during the entire month of Nisan to refrain from reciting tahanun
(supplication) prayers, eulogies and memorial prayers. Notable
holidays are Pasover (15-21/22), Holocaust Memorial Day (27).
Historically, the Tabernacle was completed in the wilderness on
the 1st; the Paschal sacrafice was offered in biblical times and
the Warsaw Ghetto Revolt in 1943 began on the 14th.
* Iyyar. The Bible calls this month Ziv (radience) (I Kg. 6:1,
6:37), and it is referred to as Iyyar in the Talmud (RH 1:3).
Notable Holidays are Israeli Independence Day (5), Lag b'Omer
(18), and Yom Yerushalayim (28).
* Sivan. The name appears in the Bible only in Esther 8:9. Notable
holidays are Shavuot (6/7).
* Tammuz. Tammuz is mentioned once in the Bible in reference to the
Babylonian god (Ezek. 8:14); in the Talmud it appears frequently
as the name of the month. Notable holidays are the Fast of Tammuz
(17).
* Av. Av first appears in Jewish sources in Megillat Ta'anit of the
talmudic period, but appears earlier in Assyrian inscriptions,
apparently referring to spring and meaning "fresh growth". As many
national calamities occured in Av, it is also called Menahem
(consoler), expressing the hope it will be a month of consolation.
"When Av arrives, gladness is diminished," say the talmudic sages
(Ta'an. 4:6). Hence, celebration is severely curtailed until after
the ninth of Av. During these nine days, amusements, bathing for
pleasure, business dealings, new construction, planting and
nonvital repairs are avoided; meat is not eaten and wine not drunk
except on Sabbath and at a se'udat mitzah repast. Notable holidays
are Tish b'Av (9). Notable historic events: Aaron died on the 1st;
on the 9th: the First Temple was destroyed (586 BCE); the Second
Temple was destroyed (70 CE); Jerusalem was razed by Hadrian (132
CE); Bethar fell as the Bar Kokhba revolt was crushed (135 CE);
England expelled the Jews (1290 CE); Spain expelled the Jews (1492
CE); and the Jews of Rome were enclosed in a ghetto (1555 CE); on
the 10th, France expelled the Jews (1306 CE).
* Elul. As Elul immediately precedes the Days of Awe, it is a month
of repentence in which special prayers are said and the shofar is
sounded at the weekday morning service. In the Sephardi rites,
selihot are recited daily throughout the month, whereas Ashkenazim
recite them only during the week before Rosh ha-Shanah.
* Tishri. In the Torah, Tishri is referred to as "the month of
Ethanim", the month of natural forces (I Kg. 8:2). The expression
is possibly a reference to the winds that are expected to bring
the season's first rains, or to the torrents that are supposed to
fill the wadis in Eretz Israel at this time of year. The name
"Tishri", from the Akkadian root meaning "to begin", first appears
in Jewish sourses in the Talmud. Notable holidays are Rosh
Ha-Shana (1/2), Fast of Gedaliah (3); Yom Kippur (10); Sukkot
(15-22); Hoshana Rabbah (21); Shemini Atzertet (22); Simchat Torah
(23). Notable historic events: on the 10th, the Jews were expelled
from Paris (1394 CE) and the Yom Kippur War began (1973 CE).
* Heshivan. The Torah calls it "the month of the Bul" (I Kg. 6:38)
in reference to the bountiful harvests associated with the season.
The name Heshivan first appears in Jewish sourses in talmudic
literature and Josephus (Ant. 1,3,3). It is often referred to as
Marheshivan, i.e. with the prefix "mar". The term "mar" is thought
to mean "a drop" and relates to the month as the beginning of the
rainy season. There are no festivals or fast days in Heshivan. In
that respect it is unique. Notable historical days: On the 16th,
Kristallnach, the the destruction of synagogues in Nazi Germany
and Austria, occured.(9/10 November 1938).
* Kislev. Kislev is mentioned in the Torah (Zech. 7:1; Neh. 1:1).
According to the Talmud, "If rains have not fallen by the 1st of
Kislev, three public fasts are decreed" (TB. Ta'an. 10a). Notable
holidays: Chanukkah (starts on the 25th). Notable historical
events: on the 17th, the U.N. General Assembly decided on
partition of Palestine (29 November 1947); on the 22nd, the State
of Israel declared Jerusalem its capital (1949); and on the 24th,
the building of the Second Temple occurred (Haggai 2:18) and the
British captured of Jerusalem (8 December 1917).
* Tevet. Although it is mentioned in the Torah its meaning is
obscure (Esth. 2:16). The last two or three days of Hanukkah fall
at the beginning of Tevet. Notable Holidays: Asarah be-Tevet (10),
a day of fasting and mourning, marking the start of the siege of
Jerusalem by the Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar (588 BCE); this
day is also the Memorial day for the victims of the Holocaust
whose day of death is unknown, set by the Israeli Chief Rabbinate
(1949). Notable historical events: on the 19th, Keren Kayemet
le-Israel (Jewish National Fund) was established, (1901 CE); on
the 20th, Maimonides died (1204 CE); and on the 23rd Portugal
expelled its Jewish population (1496).
* Shevat. The name appeared once in the Torah (Zech. 1:7). Notable
holidays: Tu b'Shevat (15), the New Year for Trees. Notable
historical events: on the 15th, the First Knesset convened (1949);
and on the 18th, the Knesset elected Chaim Weizmann as first
president of the State of Israel.
* Adar/Adar II. The name appears in the Torah in Ezra 6:15 and seven
times in Esther. In a leap year, the intercalcated month is called
Adar Sheni (Second Adar or Adar II) and the regular month Adar
Rishom (First Adar or Adar I). Events normally occuring in Adar
are celebrated in Adar II; however, the yahrzeit of someone who
died in an ordinary Adar is marked in Adar I (although, because
there is a difference of opinion, some will say Kaddish also in
Adar II). "When Adar arrives people should increase gladness" (TB.
Ta'an. 29a) because of the Purim deliverance that occured in that
month. In Adar the half shekel was collected from the public for
Temple and related purposes; the forbidden kilayim grafted crops
were uprooted; repairs were begun on roads and on water sources
damaged by rain, to make them fit for the Passover pilgrims to
Jerusalem. Notable holidays are the Fast of Esther (13); Purim
(14); and Shushan Purim (15). Notable historic events include on
the1st, the Shekel campaign begun in Temple period; and on the
7th, the supposed date of the birth and death of Moses, which is
marked as a yahzeit of all persons whose burial place is unknown,
and, in Israel, of the "Unknown Soldiers."
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.9: How does Judaism measure the day?
Answer:
In the Talmud (Eiruvin 56a), Shmuel (3rd cent CE) asserts the Julian
year to be a sufficient approximation for the true solar year for
legal purposes: 365 days, 6 hours. In Sefer haIbbur, Rav Ada (a
younger contemporary) asserts a closer approximation of 365 days, 997
chalaqim, 46 rega'im.
In general, tradition follows R' Ada, except in the Blessing on the
Sun, which is done once every 28 years. Every 28 years, the sun
returns to where it was at the moment of its creation on Wednesday.
This is only true if you presume Shmuel's approximation, which would
have each year be 52 weeks, 1.25 days. The calculations of R' Ada's
approximation would lead to the blessing being said too rarely. In any
case, the whole thing is symbolic, as there is reason to believe
Shmuel himself didn't take the "week of creation" literally.
The Jewish calendar, which uses the Metonic 19 year cycle of 12 and 13
month years, is adjusted to get a total of 19 of R' Ada's
approximation of solar years. For the month, the approximation used is
to the nearest heleq, not rega: 29 days, 12 hours 793 halaqim.
However, it is exact to that precision. [Which is quite an
accomplishment, as the month length varies (the path of the moon
around the earth is chaotic, what Newton called a "three body
problem). It would take roughly 2,400 years of averaging to get a
standard deviation that small. Jewish tradition attributes great age
to this number, dating it all the way back to G-d telling Moses in
Sinai.]
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.10: Are the Four Questions asked on Pesach in the Torah?
Answer:
All four are found within the 5 books of Moses.
1. The wise son's question is from Deut 6.
2. The wicked son's quesiton is in Exodus 12.
3. The simple son's question comes from Exodus 13.
4. The answer we offer the unasked question of the one who doesn't
know to ask is provided in Exod 13 as well.
Much ink has been spent on why the answers given the wise and wicked
sons in the Torah are not the ones used in the Passover Haggadah. The
Torah answers the wise son, "We were slaves to Pharoah in Egypt', a
text used earlier in the Passover Haggadah. The Haggadah, here
continues that answer from the theoretical to the pragmatic, and
therefore has you telling the son all the laws of the evening. The
Torah's wicked son differs from the Haggadah. The wicked son asks,
"What is this work for you?" The Torah states that this son is of a
generation who grew "old in the land", whose parents go through the
routine, but really see it as work. The harsh answer of the Haggadah
is therefore not given the Torah's version of the question--its child
is not fully accountable for its attitude.
Note that in Pesachim 116a we find four questions more suited for when
the Temple is standing: one about matzah, maror, roasted lamb (the
qorban pesach) and abut dipping twice. Today, without the qorban, that
question became moot. However, reclining is out of place; it's both no
longer in style, and not the norm for a people still struggling to
return. Therefore asking about it was a logical replacement. And, the
Vilna Gaon writes, this preserves the parallel in number to the four
cups of wine and four foremothers. The Rambam (Hilchos Chameitz
uMatzah 8:2-3), on the other hand, writes that there were originally
five questions. The one about roasting was dropped, not replaced. In
the Yerushalmi's version of the mishnah and the one found printed with
the Rif's and Rosh's commentaries in the back of the Vilna edition of
the Talmud, there are only three questions: dipping, matzah and
roasted meat. R' Menachem Kasher (Haggadah Sheleimah) cites 9
manuscripts of the mishnah, of which 8 only had these three questions.
In all probability, this was because the maror was one of the items
dipped. It was not felt to warrant a second question once the one
about dipping was raised. While on the subject of Pesachim 116a, it's
interesting to note that the rest of the "Maggid" portion of the
haggadah appears to be a fulfilment of the mitzvah according to each
of three different opinions. Rav has us focussing on the spiritual
redemption ("Originally we were idolaters...") Shemu'el, on the
physical one ("We were slaves to Pharoah...") Rabban Gamli'el, on the
mitzvos of the night ("Anyone who did not discuss these three
things...")
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.11: What are the different days of the Jewish week?
Answer:
Judaism doesn't make much distinction between the days of the week,
except for Shabbat. In fact, the days of the week are called Yom
Rishon, Yom Sheini... (i.e., 1st day, 2nd day, ....), and then
Shabbat. The only philosophical oddity is that not only is day 7
called "Shabbat", but each day is "of the Shabbat". In other words,
"the first day" (Sunday) is liturgically called "yom rishon beshabbat"
when introducing the day's psalm.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.12: How are Yahrzeits observed in Leap Years?
Answer:
The real question is how one observes Yahrzeits that occur in the
Jewish month of Adar: are they observed in Adar I or Adar II? Many
issues in halachah are subject to debate, and this is one of them. The
Sepharadic ruling (followed also by some Chassidic groups) is to
observe in Adar II. Once Purim is on Adar II (to make a "redemption
season" of Purim and Passover), the "real Adar" is the 2nd Adar.
The Ashkenazic ruling is based on the notion that one ought not pass
up an opportunity to do a mitzvah. Therefore, the earliest possible
definition of yahrzeit, Adar I, is used. There is a custom to say
kaddish on both days. However, in terms of being the chazan, the other
yahrzeit date gives no priority over someone whose parent actually
died in a leap year and has an exact yahrzeit.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.13: What happened to the observance on 14 Nisan as
Passover?
Answer:
Actually, the Torah only refers to the afternoon of the 14th as
Passover. This is the time during which the Passover offering was
brought. It doesn't even imply that the day was named "Passover", just
that it refers to that period as "during the Passover [offering]". The
offering was actually eaten that night, on the fifteenth, the begining
of the holiday the Torah calls Chag haMatzos (the holiday of matzahs).
Why the name change? We call the holiday "Passover" to commemorate
what G-d did for us. He passed over the Israelites' homes and saved
them from Egypt. However, in writing the Torah, G-d stresses what man
did and does. So in the text of the bible, the name is taken from the
commandment of the day.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 5.14: For Mother's Day, how should one bless their mothers?
Answer:
First, note that both Mother's Day and Father's Day are American
holidays, not Jewish holidays. Although some congregations may
recognize them, they are not Jewish holidays, as demonstrated by their
being observed on a Sunday, a traditional Christian day for church
worship.
So, how to bless your mother. Listen to what she says; do what she
asks. Find a nice Jewish person to marry.
Seriously, although one may be able to develop a blessing for
anything, in traditional Judaism, blessing one's parents is not the
normal construction. In traditional Judaism, blessings are generally
bestowed by the have to the have not: kohein to masses, Abraham's
children to the rest of the world, parent to child, rebbe to
student/chasid. To bestow a blessing implies having G-d's "ear".
Everyone has G-d's attention, and "The blessing of commoners should
not be a light thing in your eyes." This adds much meaning to wishing
another "Mazal Tov!" or "Refu'ah sheleimah" (complete healing).
However, codified blessings tend to run in one direction. A creative
rabbi, of course, could craft something, but it wouldn't be a codified
construction (i.e., standard in Judaism).
By the way, what is a good day in Judaism for recognizing parents?
We've noted above that Mother's Day and Father's Day are not
(actually, they were created by the greeting card companies). Here's a
suggestion: Shavuot is a great time for children to honor their
parents, as the Torah portion for the week is a reading of the 10
commandments that includes the directive. It is also a great time for
remembering all the other 9 commandments, and that we should be
following them (as we do every week when we study Torah).
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 6.1: What is Kosher? Doesn't a rabbi just bless the food?
Answer:
Kosher ("fit") food must meet the complex requirements of Jewish law,
and the supervising rabbi verifies that such is the case for a given
food item, or item which will come in contact with food. There are
restrictions on which foods are permitted during different times of
the year, and a procedure for slaughtering permissible animals with
minimal pain to the animal.
The rabbi's role is to decide questions of Jewish law. In the area of
kashrus, there are hundreds of details that must be met, and thousands
of "oops, now what?" questions that must be answered. Animals, for
example, are killed in a very precise manner, by a "shochet", and they
must be checked internally for disease, have their blood removed by
salting, feathers removed in cold water, and so on. Kosher wine may
not come into gentile contact before pasteurization. Vegetables must
be examined for insects. Because meat and dairy have to be carefully
separated, precautions against milk-based additives have to taken. The
complications can be immense.
A rabbi will hire a mashgioch to do the actual supervision. The latter
is supposed to call in the rabbi when a novel situation comes up.
Note that the Reform movement does not mandate observance of the laws
of Kashrut. Instead, it advises its members to study the laws of
Kashrut and to follow those that the individual feels increases the
sanctity of their life and their relationship to G-d. As a result,
there are some Reform Jews who do keep kosher. Also, many Jews keep
some aspect of the kosher laws, such as not eating pork or shellfish.
Rabbis (and others) sometimes recommend avoiding certain food products
based on concerns other than kashruth, for example:
* Environmental (e.g. its manufacture harms the environment more
than necessary)
* Religious (e.g. a Jewish-owned bakery selling kosher food, but
open on the Sabbath)
* 'Tikun olam' [repairing the world] (e.g. the manufacturer complies
with the Arab boycott of Israel, or mistreats its employees)
Some rabbis choose not to supervise certain products based on
considerations of the above sort.
For those looking for the traditional point of view, there is a good,
short primer at [5]http://www.ou.org/kosher/primer.html.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 6.2: How can I learn about Kashrut? Is there a "Kosher"
FAQ?
Answer:
The Union of Orthodox Congregations maintains a FAQ at
[5]http://www.ou.org/kosher/primer.html, which would be a good
starting point. For Pesach, another good source is the Official
Rabbinical Assembly Pesach Kashrut Guide at
[6]http://www.rabbinicalassembly.org/info/pesahguide/index.html. Some
other good sites include:
* Why keep kosher? From the National Jewish outreach program
[7]http://www.njop.org/html/Newsletters_and_articles.html#a3.
* An Introduction to the Philosophy and Laws of Immersing Vessels
(traditional). [8]http://www.innernet.org.il/tevilah.htm.
* The Official Masorti (Israeli Conservative) teshuva on Pesach and
the use of kitniyot
[9]http://www.masorti.org/responsa/kitniyot.html.
Another way to learn is to read some of the books in the [10]reading
list (Part 2, "Traditional"), and subscribe to some of the
periodicals. In particular, we recommend the following books:
[Dre59]
Dresner, Samuel H; Siegel, Seymour. The Jewish Dietary Laws.
Burning Bush Press, New York. 1959. United Synagogue Book
Service; 1980. Paperback. ISBN 0-838121-05-5.[Conservative
authorship. The book presents liberal positions on ingredients,
wine, cheese, gelatin, swordfish. Among Conservative rabbis,
the book reflects more lenient views.]
[11][Buy at Amazon:
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0838121055/socculturejew
ish/]
[ForXX]
Forst, Binyomin. The Laws Of Kashrus. Artscroll Mesorah.
Hardcover. [A comprehensive exposition of their underlying
concepts and application]
[12][Buy at Artscroll:
http://www.artscroll.com/linker/socculturejewish/ASIN/LOKH]
[Gre85]
Greenberg, Blu. How to Run a Traditional Jewish Household
Paperback reprint edition (September 1985) Simon & Schuster
(Paper); 1985; ISBN 0-671602-70-5. Jason Aronson (Hardcover);
1989; ISBN 0-876688-82-2.
Paperback: [13][Buy at Amazon:
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0671602705/socculturejew
ish] ; Hardback: [14][Buy at Amazon:
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0876688822/socculturejew
ish]
[Lip88]
Lipschutz, Yacov. Kashruth: A Comprehensive Background and
Reference Guide to the Principles of Kashruth (The Artscroll
Series). Mesorah Publications Ltd.; 1988. Hardcover. ISBN
0-899065-58-9.
[15][Buy at Amazon:
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0899065589/socculturejew
ish/] [16][Buy at Artscroll:
http://www.artscroll.com/linker/socculturejewish/ASIN/KASH]
[Lub89]
Lubavitch Women's Organization. Body and Soul: A Handbook for
Kosher Living, Lubavitch Women's Cookbook Pub, NY. 1989. Bloch
Pub Co; 1997.Paperback. ISBN 0-826602-39-8. [Short introduction
to kosher basics.]
[17][Buy at Amazon:
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0826602398/socculturejew
ish/]
[Lub90]
Lubavitch Women's Organization: Blau, Esther; Deitsch, Tzirrel;
Light, Cherna. Spice and Spirit: Complete Kosher Jewish
Cookbook. Lubavitch Women's Cookbook Pub, NY, 1990, 1997.
Hardcover. Reprint edition. ISBN 0-826602-38-X. [Contains
detailed information about the laws of kashrut and holidays
from the Lubavitch point of view and thus follows Lubavitch
customs regarding Kashrut; for non-Lubavitch, use in
conjunction with other Kashrut references. Lots of traditional
recipes that tend not to fail, if followed. Good section on
Passover baking.]
[18][Buy at Amazon:
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/082660238X/socculturejew
ish/]
[Wag00]
Wagschal, S. The Practical Guide to Kashruth. Philipp Feldheim;
2000. Hardcover. ISBN 0-873065-61-1.
[19][Buy at Amazon:
http://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/0873065611/socculturejew
ish/]
Also, every Jewish household, if you're at all interested in Kashrus,
should subscribe to Kashrus Magazine, published by Yeshiva Birkas
Reuven. For information, contact Kashrus at P.O. Box 204, Brooklyn NY
11204. You can call (718) 336-8544 for Visa/Mastercard Orders. Email:
[EMAIL PROTECTED] You can also visit the Kashrus website at
[21]http://www.kashrusmagazine.com/.
There are also a large number of Kosher Shopping Opportunities on the
web, including [22]Kosher Supermarket
([23]http://www.koshersupermarket.com/), [24]Wholesaleportal
([25]http://www.wholesaleportal.com/), [26]Kosher Finder
([27]http://www.kosherfinder.com/), [28]Kosher Foods Depot
([29]http://www.kosherfoodsdepot.com/), [30]Kosher Cornucopia
([31]http://www.koshercornucopia.com/), [32]Kosher Club
([33]http://www.kosherclub.com), and [34]Kosher Fest
([35]http://www.kosherfest.com/).
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 6.3: There are a wide variety of kosher symbols. How do I
learn who's behind them?
Answer:
Every year, Kashrus Magazine publishes an index to all the Kosher
symbols and the people behind them. You can reach Kashrus Magazine on
the net at (<[5]http://www.kashrusmagazine.com/>).
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 6.4: I'm going to be in (insert city here). How do I find
the kosher restaurants?
Answer:
Shamash.org maintains a [5]database of restaurants in various cities
that are kosher. This database may be found at
[6]http://www.shamash.org/kosher/. The interface provides an easy to
use search service for the database. There is also a link to a service
that allows you to download the database to your Palm Pilot. Email
inquiries on the database may be sent to the Shamash Kosher Restaurant
Team at [EMAIL PROTECTED]
Another possibility is KosherNIC Restaurant Index, at
[8]http://www.koshernic.com. This is a searchable database of kosher
restaurants around the world. It provides reviews, ratings, maps and
driving directions. It is fully searchable by location, KEYWORD,
Hashgacha, cuisine, etc.
Some other ideas:
* Call the hotel. Most large hotels, especially the chains, have
provisions for providing Kosher food, given adequate notice. The
hotel can tell you what it can provide. It can also provide the
name of the Mashgiach (kashruth supervisor).
* If the conference hotel cannot provide the services you require,
then call another large chain hotel.
* All hotels have the names of nearby houses of worship--and
sometimes ones in other parts of town. A call to the hotel will
always elicit this information, and a call to the congregation may
get information not obtainable directly from the hotel. This might
include contacts for minyons that have no shul, but which are
within easier walking distance of the Hotel. This is also a
possible source of recommendations for hotels with Kosher catering
facilities, should the conference hotel not have any. It can also
be as source of information on the reliability of the Mashgiach,
if you require this information.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 6.5: Do I need to have a kosher kitchen and kosher home to
keep kosher?
Answer:
No, all you have to do is avoid non-kosher food. Preparing kosher food
in a non-kosher kitchen is possible (this arises when visiting or
living with relatives who don't keep kosher) but it is much more
difficult than preparing kosher food in a kosher kitchen.
The practice of keeping kosher in the home, but eating non-kosher food
outside the home is certainly better than eating non-kosher food all
the time, but the kosher laws deal with what to eat, not where to eat
it.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 6.6: I have heard that Polish Orthodox Jews wait 6 hours
between eating milchig and fleishig and Dutch Orthodox Jews wait
about an hour. Why?
Answer:
The waiting time is based on a discussion in the Talmud where tree
different times of waiting between meat and milk are taken up as being
valid. The base for the wait is the verse in the Torah saying that you
should not boil the kid in its mothers milk. The question is what is
really demanded. The one hour wait is based on the premise that all
that is needed is for the taste to disappear from the mouth. The six
hour is based on the time it was believed to take for meat to leave
the stomach. There was also a twenty four hour wait, based on the meat
being totally gone from the system, which has completely disappear as
a custom.
Note that both agree that there must be a delay, it's just that the
different communities came to different conclusions about the length.
It's a matter of custom. The delays selected appears to be based on
the elapsed time between two meals in the respective societies. All
agreed that they must not be eaten at the same meal, and "bentching",
i.e. the recitation of birkat ha-mazon/Grace After Meals, was
considered to be the end of a meal.
German Jews wait for three hours, since a mid-afternoon snack (about 3
hours after lunch) was common practice among Jews and non-Jews in
Germany. No such habit existed in Poland or Russia, hence six hours.
And, you guessed it, a late-afternoon snack one hour before dinner is
not entirely uncommon in Holland. The valid ones today are the one and
the six hour periods. The three hours custom of the Germans is less
accepted; traditionally, if a boy who keeps three hours marries a girl
who keeps one hour, the custom is that he adopt the one hour wait of
his wife. However, if, the boy keeps a six hour wait, the wife should
change to waiting six hours.
One contributor notes that some Dutch Orthodox Jews actually quickly
bentched (said blessings) after the meat course on Friday night,
entertained his group for one hour, and then served a dairy dessert
after asking if anyone objected and being answered in the negative.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 6.7: Why do Sephardim and Ashkenazim have different customs
regarding permissible foods on Pesach (Passover)?
Answer:
Both agree that Chometz products are forbidden. Ashkenazi authorities
additionally forbade kitniyos, a class of foods in some ways similar
to chometz, but not classified as "chometz." Kitniyos refers to grains
and grain like products such as rice, millet, beans, lentils, and
others. Even though these items cannot become chometz, Ashkenazim do
not eat them because they are easily confused with grains that can be
become chometz and may even be mixed together with them. Sephardic
Jews (Jews from primarily the Middle East and Northern Africa)
generally do not refrain from eating kitniyos. Possession of kitniyos
is permitted according to all customs.
The custom of avoiding kitnyos is mentioned for the first time in
France and Provence in the beginning of the thirteenth century by R.
Asher of Lunel; R. Samuel of Falaise, and R. Peretz of Corbeil - from
there it spread to various countries and the list of prohibited foods
continued to expand. Nevertheless, the reason for the custom was
unknown and as a result many sages invented at least eleven different
explanations for the custom. The most common explanation appears to be
that kitnyos grains may be ground and look like flour, and that the
swell in contact with water. Thus, to avoid confusion, Ashkenazi Jews
avoided them.
There is a long discussion of the origins of the customs and its
specifics at [5]http://www.tzemachdovid.org/klh/taubes.html.
For Ashkenazi Conservative Jews, the Conservative Movement has issued
a tshuva stating that kitnyos may be eaten on Pesach. It can be found
at [6]http://www.jtsa.edu/org/masorti/msg00085.html, and states that
the custom of kitnyos is in direct contradiction to an explicit
decision in the Babylonian Talmud (Pesachim 114b), as well as the
opinion of all the sages of the Mishna and Talmud except one (R.
Yochanan ben Nuri, Pesachim 35a and parallels). The Tshuvah also
claims that it contradicts the theory and the practice of the Amoraim
both in Babylonia and in Israel (Pesachim 114b and other sources), the
Geonim (Sheiltot. Halakhot Pesukot,,Halaktiot Gedolot, etc.) and of
most of the early medieval authorities in all countries (altogether
more than 50 Rishonim!).
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 6.8: I'm a vegetarian health-food proponent. Is kosher food
healthier?
Answer:
We don't know. Traditional Jews keep kosher because G-d demands it of
us. However, we wouldn't be at all surprised if something which G-d
demands would also be good for us.
Note that vegetarian food is not always kosher: there are problems
with cheese, vinegar, oils, grape jelly, insects, gentile cooking, and
lots more. (No, we don't mean vegetarians eat insects. But strict
kashrus requires careful inspection for insects.)
Side note for meat eaters: kosher meat is healthier. USDA standards
are disgustingly lenient regarding the animal's health. "Sixty
Minutes" once did an expose on this--many kosher butchers reported a
large increase in gentile customers. Cold-water plucking helps prevent
the spread of salmonella bacteria, and meat from diseased animals
cannot be considered kosher. Kosher slaughter is more humane than
non-kosher slaughter, as it kills the animal in a painless fashion.
Although kosher slaughter does not kill the animal instantly, the
animal passes out from the sudden drop in cranial blood pressure and
dies in a minute or so. There is no pain.
Some Jews boycott particular foods or manufacturers as a political or
human rights gesture. However, even if a rabbi declares a food
prohibited in his community, although it is equally as forbidden as
non-kosher food, this does not affect its kosher status. (For example,
utensils coming in contact with morally-forbidden products do not
become non-kosher.)
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 6.9: Is vegetarianism kosher?
Answer:
In principle, vegetarianism is compatible with Judaism. In fact, there
are those who find reasons within Jewish thought supporting
vegetarianism. However, Judaism categorically rejects the radical
animal rights position that animals have the same rights as people. It
should also be kept in mind that, in traditional circles at least,
vegetarianism may be considered somewhat "strange".
From the traditional viewpoint, vegetarianism for anything other than
health reasons is not supported, for the following reasons:
* "Ethical Vegetarianism" is rejected because it is G-d who allows
us to eat animals. The laws of shechita (ritual slaughter) are
designed to provide a compassionate way to kill the animals for
eating.
* Eating animals actually elevates the animal. In traditional
thought, animals can only do so much. When a jew makes a blessing,
eats animal products, and then uses that energy to do mitzvos,
(s)he is elevating the animal to G-dliness in a way that the
animal could not do itself. This is considered to be a holy
endeavor, and is further detailed in the concepts of chassidus.
* The torah states that "eating meat and drinking wine give a man
pleasure." All festive and holiday meals have both components:
they bring us gladness and enhance our simcha. One approach to
addressing this is to save eating animal products for Shabbat and
holidays, and eat pareve during the week.
Non-traditional movements do hold with the notion of "Ethcial
Kashrut". Gates of Mitzvah, the Reform guide to Mitzvot, notes: "One
might opt to eat only kosher meat or even to adopt some form of
vegetarianism so as to avoid the necessity of taking a life. (This
would be in consonance with the principle of tsa-ar baalei
chayim--prevention of cruelty to animals.)"
According to most halachic authorities, when the Temple is rebuilt,
all Jewish men will be obligated to partake of the paschal lamb with
their families. Nothing short of a severe lamb allergy permits
abstaining from this sacrificial meal (of course, it is believed that
when the Temple is built, G-d will heal the sick, so the allergies
will go away). There are various positions on this issue, which have
been written about in Kashrus magazine and on the net. Consult your
local rabbi for details.
Note that, while Judaism defines animals as below humans and does not
give animals the same rights as people, it does take very strong
pro-animal stance. Animals must be treated with care and respect;
recall that the Torah says that a hungry animal must be fed before its
master.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 6.10: What process is involved in Kosher Slaughter?
Answer:
Slaughtering an animal is a complicated process. One must use an
extremely sharp knife, and in a single action must slice through both
the windpipe and the artery carrying blood to the head. This
immediately renders the animal unconscious -- it dies before having
the opportunity to feel any pain. The knife itself must be sharpened
to perfection -- to the point that one cannot feel any imperfections
in the blade. Otherwise the animal is rendered non-kosher. In
addition, a detailed examination of the animal must be performed
afterwards, to ensure that it was not sick or disabled. There is a
blessing said in advance, as there is before performing any
commandment, but this is not a prerequisite (and in addition, one
blessing said in the morning applies to all animals a professional
ritual slaughterer does that day). The word "professional" is very
appropriate--it takes months of training for someone who is already a
Rabbi to learn how to do this properly. The result, though, is the
kosher animals are healthy and died with minimum pain.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 6.11: I work in a prison, and I have an inmate that is
demanding Kosher Food? How do I know if his claim is justified?
Answer:
Inmates who were Jewish before coming to prison can usually give
references from relatives, and if they were affiliated, from rabbis.
One could also inquire as to whether they kept kosher before going to
jail and how observant they were. Additionally, their observance level
should be apparent by other practices in prison (i.e., do they attempt
to observe the Shabbat?). In the UK, the official line (set by the
prisons) is that if the inmate ate Kosher food outside prison, he/she
has a right to it inside prison. There is at least one progressive
rabbi in the UK whose rule is: If a Jewish inmate requests Kosher
food, he will approve it.