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Archive-name: judaism/FAQ/05-Worship
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Frequently Asked Questions on Soc.Culture.Jewish
Part 5: Worship, Conversion, Intermarriage, and other Practice Questions
[Last Post: Wed Dec 3 11:07:35 US/Pacific 2003]
The FAQ is a collection of documents that is an attempt to answer
questions that are continually asked on the soc.culture.jewish family
of newsgroups. It was written by cooperating laypeople from the
various Judaic movements. You should not make any assumption as to
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word might appear with a variety of spellings. This is complicated by
the fact that there are regional variations in the pronunciation of
Hebrew. In some places, the common spelling variations are mentioned;
in others--not. We hope that this is not too confusing.
In general, throughout this FAQ, North American (US/Canada) terms are
used to refer to the movements of Judaism. Outside of North American,
Reform is Progressive or Liberal Judaism; Conservative is Masorti or
Neolog, and Orthodoxy is often just "Judaism". Even with this, there
are differences in practice, position, and ritual between US/Canada
Reform and other progressive/liberal movements (such as UK
Progressive/ Liberal), and between US/Canada Conservative and the
conservative/Masorti movement elsewhere. Where appropriate, these
differences will be highlighted.
The goal of the FAQ is to present a balanced view of Judaism; where a
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[5]reading lists. Similar questions can be found in the books
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------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: ORGANIZATION
This portion of the FAQ contains answers to the following questions:
Section 9:
Jewish Worship
1. [5]How does a rabbi differ from a priest?
2. [6]Do you need a rabbi for a wedding?
3. [7]Do you need a rabbi for a divorce?
4. [8]How do Jews pray?
5. [9]Is there a distinctly Jewish form of meditation?
6. [10]Does Judaism have a strong tradition of religious art and
music?
7. [11]What is a synagogue?
8. [12]What will I find in a synagogue?
9. [13]How is a synagogue operated?
10. [14]What functions does a synagogue serve?
11. [15]What is the name of the Jewish God?
12. [16]What is the reason for a "minyon" (a quorum of 10 men requried
for certain prayers)?
13. [17]What is the "Shema"?
14. [18]Where can I learn about the prayers before eating?
15. [19]What is the structure of the morning service?
16. [20]When should morning services start?
17. [21]Why do people put their tallit over their heads when they
pray?
18. [22]What is the importance of collective worship in Judaism?
19. [23]What is the difference between Conservative Prayer and
Orthodox Prayer?
20. [24]What is the Timeline of Women in the Rabbinate?
21. [25]Are extremely observant men permitted to pray at home?
22. [26]What is the Qetzatzah Ceremony?
23. [27]What time of day were the sacrifices offered?
Section 10:
Conversion, Intermarriage, and "Who is a Jew?"
1. [5]Does Halacha (Jewish law) permit intermarriage?
2. [6]I'm a Jew who married a gentile. Am I still Jewish?
3. [7]I'm a Jew who accepted the tenets of another religion, but now
wants to practice Judaism again. Am I allowed? Am I still Jewish?
4. [8]OK, then apart from halachic considerations, why do many Jews
of all types oppose intermarriage?
5. [9]Is objection to intermarriage a form of bigotry?
6. [10]But I still want to intermarry? Do you know of a Rabbi that
performs intermarriages?
7. [11]How does one convert?
8. [12]What about adults who are not circumcised?
9. [13]What does the word "Jew" mean?
10. [14]Who is a Jew?
11. [15]What is the origin of Matrilineal Descent?
12. [16]I've heard that Jewish parents consider an intermarried child
as "dead". Is this true?
13. [17]Why is the conversion process so complicated? The matriarchs
didn't have to convert.
Section 11:
Miscellaneous Practice Questions
11.1. Dress
1. [5]Why do some Jewish women wear wigs or cover their hair with a
snood, beret, tichel, turban, kerchief or hat?
2. [6]Why do many Jewish men wear head coverings (variously referred
to as "yarmulkas," "skullcaps," and "kipot")?
3. [7]What is a Tallis? Tzit-tzit(those fringes)? Why do Jews wear
them?
4. [8]What are those black boxes and leather straps Jewish men wear?
5. [9]Why do many Jewish men sport beards and/or long sideburns?
6. [10]Why do some Orthodox Jews, especially Chassidim, wear a
distinctive style of clothing (i.e., fur hats, black coats,
gartel)?
7. [11]What is Shaatnez?
8. [12]Are there any special dress rules or customs for women?
9. [13]What is a Kittel?
10. [14]What is the large high ceremonial hat that the Rabbi wears in
the synagogue called?
11.2 Sex and Purity
1. [15]What's this I've heard about a hole in a sheet?
2. [16]Can a Jewish man only uncover his wife a hands-breadth?
3. [17]What is a "mikveh"?
4. [18]What are Jewish hygene practices?
11.3 Writing
1. [19]Why do some people write "G-d" with a hyphen instead of an
`o'?
2. [20]Why do some Jews write "J-s-s" and "Xianity"?
3. [21]Why are somethings written in Hebrew, and others in Aramaic?
11.4 Practices towards others
1. [22]Does Judaism permit slavery?
2. [23]What does "eye for an eye" mean?
3. [24]Is it permitted for a Jew to sell Christian objects?
11.5 Weddings
* This material has been moved to [25]Section 8.
11.6 Death and Burial
1. [26]Is it true that someone with tattoos cannot be buried in a
Jewish cemetery?
2. [27]I've heard about a custom of putting stones on the grave. Do
you know where this custom originated?
3. [28]Is "stone setting" at the cemetery within a year after death
is a Jewish tradition?
4. [29]What are the Jewish mourning customs after the death of an
immediate relative?
5. [30]What are Jewish funeral customs?
6. [31]Is getting cryogenically frozen against Judaism?
7. [32]Are Jews buried facing West?
8. [33]Can Jews be cremated?
9. [34]What is the Jewish position on Suicide?
10. [35]Can pregnant women attend a funeral?
11. [36]If a Jewish person lives in an area where there is no
synagogue, no Jewish funeral home, and no Jewish cemetery, what
would the rules be in regard to burial?
12. [37]Can Jews and Non-Jews be buried together?
13. [38]Must the Chevra Kedisha be family members?
14. [39]How have burial customs changed over time?
15. [40]Why do Jews emphasize burial within 24 hours?
11.7 Charity
1. [41]What are the levels of giving?
11.8 Sacrifices
1. [42]When did Jews stop making animal sacrifices?
2. [43]What replaced animal sacrifices in Jewish practice?
3. [44]How do sacrifices relate to compassion for animals?
4. [45]Will sacrifices be restored if the Temple is rebuilt?
11.9 Symbols
1. [46]Why are Jews called Jews?
2. [47]What does the Star of David represent and what is its
symbolism?
3. [48]What is the signficance of "Chai" and the number 18?
4. [49]What is a Mezuzah?
5. [50]What is a Menorah?
6. [51]What is the significance of the number 5?
7. [52]What is the significance of the number 3?
8. [53]What is the significance of the number 40?
9. [54]What is the significance of the number 7?
10. [55]Are there any Jewish housewarming rituals?
11. [56]What is the significance of blue in Judaism? Are there other
special colors?
12. [57]What is the significance of the number 8?
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.1: How does a rabbi differ from a priest?
Answer:
A rabbi has no actual powers in the written Torah, although the Talmud
does provide the Rabbi with the authority to make interpretations of
Torah (which, in Orthodoxy, provides authority). Rabbis are, however,
ordained (a term used in the progressive communities) or given
semichah. This is a recognition of a certain level of training or
education as defined as appropriate for the community in which the
Rabbi has studied.
One of the traditional names for semichah is hatarat hora'ah, which
translates as a license to instruct. In the Orthodox community,
semichah is granted in two forms: Yoreh Yoreh (to instruct) and Yadin
Yadin (a higher level, meaning to judge). This was seen in earlier
times. For example there was the "Magid" or preacher (the role of
teaching Jewish law and judging being separated from moral
instruction).
Because of the rabbi's training, the rabbi often takes on other roles.
Rabbinical presence at religious services is desired insofar as
everyone likes the rabbi and the rabbi can rule on questions that come
up related to the service (e.g. does a particular smudge render a
Torah scroll unkosher?) If the rabbi has a nice voice, and no one else
has priority, the rabbi may even lead the services. The state gives
rabbis the permission to perform weddings and so on since the state
trusts them.
Priests are male descendants from Aaron, the brother of Moses. They
are usually called cohanim [cohen singular]. The cohanim perform
Birkat Cohanim (blessing the congregation using the Hebrew text found
in Bamidbar [Numbers] 6:23-25) on the following occasions:
Daily
...in Israel (except the Galil, per Minhag Tzefat)
Shabbat and Yom Tov
...in many non-Israeli Sephardic congregations
Yom Tov
...otherwise (non-Israeli Ashkenazic congregations)
Cohanim are traditionally granted priority in numerous details. They
are also traditionally forbidden to attend funerals other than their
closest relatives and may not marry divorcees or converts. When the
Temple is standing, the cohanim run most of the Temple service.
The "Star Trek" Vulcan "live long and prosper" sign is roughly
one-half of the gesture the cohanim make when blessing the
congregation.1 You can see it engraved on many cohen tombstones:
\\//_ _\\//
\ / \ /
The Pharisee/Sadduccee conflict was a sectarian division in the period
of the Second Temple, although some view it as a rabbi/priest
conflict. When the Second Temple was destroyed, the priests lost most
of their power.
Oh wait, you meant maybe, like Catholic/Anglican priests? Heh.
On this note: Priests are often used as intermediaries between man and
G-d. Rabbis are nothing more than regular people who have learned much
Torah. Catholic priests can give absolution for sins, rabbis can't
(unless you're asking forgiveness for something you've done against
the rabbi personally).
On the other hand, in the traditions of the Chassids and in the
Sephardi communities, holy men sometimes have a role as intermediary
(though not obligatory, of course). The tales of Rabbi Levi Yitzchak
of Berdichev are filled with stories of his intercession On-High. This
was a dominant theme in Chasidic "maasehs."
Footnote:
1: The Vulcan's learned of this symbol from Leonard Nimoy, who is
Jewish.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.2: Do you need a rabbi for a wedding?
Answer:
Technically, you don't need one; however, it's very important to have
a rabbi in order to make sure that the complicated marriage ceremony
is done properly. Valid witnesses are needed to make the marriage
official. The criteria constituting a valid witness differ among the
movements.
The purpose of a rabbi is like that of using a judge or a lawyer in
civil matters to ensure that the law is complied with. This differs
from the non-Jewish concept of a minister having some necessary
mystical connection with G-d that is required to make the ceremony
valid.
In Israel, the Rav is also needed for the secular legality of the
wedding.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.3: Do you need a rabbi for a divorce?
Answer:
The appropriate answer to this depends on the movement with which you
are involved, and whether or not you had a "Jewish" wedding. In this
context, a "Jewish Wedding" is a marriage that was recognized as being
under the laws of Moses and Israel. Intermarriages, regardless of the
amount of Judaism practiced in the household or who performed the
ceremony are not "Jewish" weddings because halacha (traditional Jewish
law) does not recognize marriages between Jews and non-Jews. There are
other types of marriages that are not recognized; consult your local
rabbi for information.
Conservative and Orthodox Judaism require (and Reform recommends) that
if you have a Jewish wedding, you should get a Jewish divorce, which
is called a "get". This is because Judaism regards marriage as a
special relationship between a man and a woman that begins with a holy
bond. Just as that relationship is created through a religious act of
marriage, it can only be abrogated through a Jewish act, the "get".
Note that a "get" is required even if you already have a civil divorce
(with one exception: Reform, but not the other movements, accepts the
civil divorce papers as equivalent to a "get"). According to Jewish
law, a marriage is not dissolved until a bill of divorce (get) is
exchanged between husband and wife. Most Non-Reform American Rabbis,
and all Rabbis in Israel, will not officiate at a wedding if either
party has been divorced without the benefit of a get.
Regardless of one's personal convictions or practices, or one's
movemental affiliation, obtaining a "get" is important. This simple
procedure does more than just assure the couple that they will be free
to remarry should they so desire. It also prevents a tragic problem: a
child born to a Jewish woman whose previous marriage did not terminate
with a "get" may be considered illegitimate. Any Jew, whether
observant or non-observant, needs to share in the concern for Jewish
unity and in providing their children with a clean slate for the
future.
A Jewish divorce is similar to many present-day legal transactions. A
divorce contract (get) is drawn up under expert Rabbinical staff
(consult your local Rabbi to find an appropriate party to do this) and
signed by witnesses. The husband and wife are not subject to personal
questions. If they choose to, they need not be present together.
A Jewish divorce usually takes an hour or two, during which time the
get is prepared and executed. The parties are expected to provide
proof of identification, and will be asked some formal questions to
make it clear that the get is being executed on their behalf without
coercion. Costs may vary in different cases, but on the average, a get
costs US$350.00.
Note that we should add here that many rabbis will not issue a get
until the civil divorce has been finalized in order to avoid problems.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.4: How do Jews pray?
Answer:
In public and in private; in groups and alone. Jews pray loudly and in
silence; in Hebrew, English, and any other language you can name.
Sometimes Jews even pray without language. Jews pray from the depth of
their souls, at the tops of their lungs, and from the quiet of their
hearts. It is difficult to point to a specific "Jewish" way of
praying.
However, one's prayers must fulfill certain daily obligations, so a
standard order of prayers has been developed to accomplish this.
Still, even in a structured prayer service, there are many
opportunities for a silent, personal supplication to G-d.
The introduction to the Artscroll Siddur (Orthodox) provides a good
overview of the Jewish view of prayer, and the book [5]To Pray as a
Jew discusses more of the particulars.
The next question is: So, why do we pray at all. Often, when we think
of 'prayer', we think of needs and requests. This is not necessarily
the Jewish concept of prayer.
In Judaism, prayer is an introspective process. It is process of
discovering what one is, what one should be, and how to achieve the
transformation. Prayer is described in Torah as a service of the
heart, not of the mouth (Talmud Bavli, Ta'anit 2a). By improving
ourselves with prayer, we become capable of absorbing G-d's blessing.
The Hebrew word for prayer is tefila, based on the words 'to judge' or
'to differentiate'. The exercise of judgements is called 'pilelah',
whose roots mean 'a clear separation'. Prayer is viewed as a means to
define what truly matters, to ignore the trivialities.
So why pray? Doesn't G-d know our requirements already? In Jewish
tradition, the purpose of tefila is not to tell G-d something, but
rather to raise the level of the person praying by improving their
perceptions of life so they can become worthy of blessing.
Note that Jewish law requires the worshiper to be aware that it is G-d
being addressed, to "know before Whom you are standing" (Talmud Bavli,
Berakhot, 28b). Thus, Jewish prayer is more than reading from a prayer
book. Prayer requires the sense of standing in the presence of G-d and
the intent to fulfill at least one of G-d's commandments. This intent
is called kavanah.
Talmud teaches that the minimal level of kavanah required is that "one
who prays must direct one's heart towards heaven" (Berakhot, 31a). The
next higher level of kavanah is to know and understand fully the
meanings of the prayers. The level following that is to free one's
mind of all extraneous and interfering thoughts. At the highest level,
kavanah means to think about the deeper meaning of what one is saying
and praying with extraordinary devotion. Should circumstances make it
necessary for a person to choose between saying more prayers without
kavanah or saying fewer prayers with kavanah, the fewer are preferred.
(Shulkhan Arukh, Orah Hayim 1:4)
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.5: Is there a distinctly Jewish form of meditation?
Answer:
Yes. Meditation has long been a part of Judaism. Today, there is a
revival that is discovering the richness of the Jewish meditative
tradition. Part of this comes from regularity of practice (think of
this like the repeating of a "mantra" in other cultures, although
there is much more). Meditation and reconnecting yourself to G-d
occurs through daily and regular Jewish observances such as daily
prayer, kashrut (keeping kosher), Shabbat and holydays. The silent
"shemoneh esrei" prayer is also a form of meditation.
There is much information on Jewish Meditation available on the web:
* [5]Kavannah. The Kavannah site ([6]www.kavannah.org or
[7]http://www.crosswinds.net/~kavannah/) provides a collection of
resources for Jewish Meditation.
* [8]Jewish Mystical Traditions. Zos Imos has a page on Jewish
Mystical Traditions at
[9]http://www.mnsmc.edu/merton/zos/jewish.html
* Chocomat Halev. This organization has an [10]online bibliography
specifically about Jewish Meditation at
[11]http://www.chochmat.org/biblio.htm
Readers might also consult Section [12]4.10 of this FAQ, which
contains a discussion of [13][KQ]abbalah. You might also look at some
of the books in the [14]"mysticism" portion of the reading list.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.6: Does Judaism have a strong tradition of religious art
and music?
Answer:
Emphatically, yes! Cantorial music goes back a long way, and there
have been Jewish artists since Abraham's time. You should investigate
many of the exhibits at the local Jewish Community Centers,
synagogues, and rabbinical schools (such as the Skirball Museum at
[5]Hebrew Union College in Los Angeles). Often, Jewish art focuses on
ceremonial objects, such as spice boxes, menorot, mezzuzot, wimples,
kippahs, breastplates for the Torah, Torah covers, etc, as opposed to
portraits or statues.
Judaism does have a strong tradition of religious music, it's just
that there haven't been that many Jewish composers with great popular
success outside of the small Jewish circles (as opposed to classical
composers of the 17th-19th centuries who wrote liturgical music that
was a great success in its own right, without the liturgy underneath
it)
There is also an emerging tradition of modern Jewish music, including
such artists as Debbie Friedman, Rabbi Joe Black, and others. Some of
this music is more appropriate to the liberal streams. Those
interested in modern Jewish music should investigate some of the
online Jewish music stores, such as [6]Sounds Write
([7]http://www.soundswrite.com/) or [8]JewishMusic.com
([9]http://www.jewishmusic.com/).
Some other links of interest include:
* American Conference of Cantors - Reform (Progressive) Judaism:
[10]http://rj.org/acc/
* The Cantors Assembly - Conservative (Masorti) Judaism:
[11]http://www.cantors.org/
* Cantorial Council of America - Orthodox Judaism:
[12]http://www.yu.edu/belz/
* Chazzanut Online: [13]http://www.joods.nl/~chazzanut/. A
comprehensive site on Jewish liturgical music, with a large
collection of cantorial sheet music, midi files, annotated links
and background information.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.7: What is a synagogue?
Answer:
A synagogue is a Jewish place of assembly for worship, education, and
communal affairs. One tradition dates synagogues back to the
Babylonian exile of the 6th cent. BCE, when the returnees may have
brought back with them the basic structure that was to be developed by
the 1st cent. CE into a well-defined institution around which Jewish
religious, intellectual, and communal life was to be centered. Other
scholars believe the synagogue arose after the Hasmonean revolt
(167-164 BCE) as a Pharisaic alternative to the Temple cult. In any
case, the destruction of the Temple (70 CE) and the Diaspora over the
following centuries increased the synagogue's importance.
Services in the synagogue were conducted in a simpler manner than in
the historic Temple. Services were conducted by a chazzan (reader), as
opposed to a formally appointed priest. Some congregations today
continue to use a chazzan, but in most, services are led by a rabbi.
The place of Jewish worship has many names. The Hebrew term is beit
k'nesset (literally, House of Assembly). Many people use the word
"shul," which is a Yiddish word derived from a German word meaning
"school" (which demonstrates the synagogue's role as a place of
study). "Synagogue" is a Greek translation of Beit K'nesset and also
means "place of assembly" (related to "synod"). Progressive Jews often
use the word "temple," because they consider every one of their
meeting places to be equivalent to, or a replacement for, the Temple
(this usage offends some traditional Jews, because they believe there
was only one Temple). Lastly, some Jews just use the term
"Congregation".
Note that the word "Temple" is often used to refer to the place in
Jerusalem that was the center of Jewish religion from the time of
Solomon to its destruction by the Romans in 70 CE. According to
tradition, this is the one and only place where sacrifices and certain
other religious rituals were performed. It was partially destroyed at
the time of the Babylonian Exile and rebuilt ("the Second Temple").
The "Wailing Wall" is the western retaining wall of that Temple, and
is as close to the site of the original Sanctuary as Jews can go
today. Traditional Jews believe that The Temple will be rebuilt when
the Moshiach (Messiah) comes.
Also, note that a synagogue serves many purposes. It is a house of
prayer, of course, because people go there to pray in group prayer. It
is a house of assembly, because people assemble there for social
events, such as dinners, fundraisers, and other non-religious
activities. It is a house of study because life-long learning is a
part of Judaism: we teach our children there, and we teach ourselves
there through adult education.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.8: What will I find in a synagogue?
Answer:
Sanctuary
Prayer services are normally performed in a "sanctuary" (although some
congregations use a general meeting room, which is configured as a
sanctuary). Synagogues are generally arranged so that the front of the
sanctuary is facing Jerusalem, which is the direction Jews face when
reciting certain prayers (probably because the original Temple was in
Jerusalem).
Ark
The most important feature of the sanctuary is the Ark, which is an
acrostic of the words "Aron Kodesh," ("holy cabinet"). The Ark holds
the Torah scrolls, and is generally placed in the front of the room,
on the side towards Jerusalem. These Scrolls contain the first five
books of the Bible. The Ark is in place of the Ark that had at one
time been in the most Holy place of the Temple (which was in the
Eastern part). In the Bible we are told that the tablets of the Ten
Commandments had been placed in this Ark, hence we place the Torah
Scroll in an ark on the Eastern side of the shul.
The Ark has doors as well as an inner curtain called a "parokhet",
which is in imitation of the curtain in the Sanctuary in The Temple.,
and is named for it. During certain prayers, the doors and/or curtain
of the Ark may be opened or closed. Opening or closing the doors or
curtain is performed by a member of the congregation, and is
considered an honor. One stands when the doors of the Ark are open.
Ner Tamid
In front of and slightly above the Ark, you will find the ner tamid,
the Eternal Lamp. This lamp symbolizes the commandment to keep a light
burning in the Tabernacle outside of the curtain surrounding the Ark
of the Covenant. (Ex. 27:20-21).
Menorah
Many synagoguges have a menorah (candelabrum), symbolizing the menorah
in the Temple. The menorah in the synagogue will generally have six or
eight branches instead of the Temple menorah's seven, because exact
duplication of the Temple's ritual items is improper. Note the
distinction between a menorah, which has seven branches, and a
chanukiah, which is used on Chanukkah and has nine branches.
Bimah
In the center of the room or in the front, is a pedestal or lectern
called the bimah. The bimah holds the Torah scrolls when they are
read, as well as serving as a podium for leading services. There is an
additional, lower lectern in some synagogues called an amud. The
tables/seats surrounding the bimah are facing towards Jerusalem. This
is based on Jewish law, but also appears in the Bible. (1 Kings 8
where King Solomon instructed to pray towards the place of the Holy
Temple)
Mechitzah
In traditional synagogues, you will also find a separate section where
the women sit. This may be on an upper floor balcony, or in the back
of the room, or on the side of the room, separated from the men's
section by a wall or curtain called a mechitzah. Traditionally, men
are not permitted to pray in the presence of women, because they are
supposed to have their minds on their prayers. The source for this is
ancient. In the holy temple that was in Jerusalem, they seperated men
from women during prayer and services to reduce frivolity.
Synagogue Attire
People going to a synagogue dress in a manner as to show respect for
G-d, that is nicely, formally, and modestly. Men should wear a kippah
if that is the custom of that congregation; such congregatins often
make them available by the door. Men also often wear Tallit; these are
often also available by the door (these should not be worn by
non-Jews). In progressive congregations, women also wear kippahs and
tallit. In some synagogues, married women also wear a head covering,
such as a piece of lace. If you are in an traditional synagogue, be
careful to sit in the right section: men and women are seated
separately.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.9: How is a synagogue operated?
Answer:
Synagogues are operated in a manner similar to most non-profit
organizations. They are generally run by a board of directors composed
of lay people, which manages and maintains the synagogue and its
activities, and hires religious staff for the community. There is
typically a congregation president, and other common positions include
secretary and treasurer. There are positions that deal with religious
practices, social action, membership, and other functions provided by
the organization.
Typcially, the religious staff is not a member of the board (although
they could be); they are typically employees of the congregation. In
many congregations, they earn a salary. The religious staff typically
includes a rabbi and an cantor. The latter position is sometimes
called a music director. The educational leadership is often part of
the relgious staff.
It is worth noting that a synagogue can exist without a rabbi:
religious services can be, and often are, conducted by lay people in
whole or in part. It is not unusual for a synagogue to be without a
rabbi, at least temporarily. However, the rabbi is a valuable member
of the community, providing leadership, guidance and education.
Synagogues do not pass around collection plates during services.
Traditionally, this is because Jews are not permitted to carry money
on Holy days and Shabbat. Instead, synagogues are financed through
membership dues paid annually, through voluntary donations, through
community fundraisers, and through the purchase of reserved seats for
services on Rosh Hashanah and Yom Kippur (the holidays when the
synagogue is most crowded). There are two primary approaches to
synagogue dues. Some congregations set a fixed fee based on membership
categories. Other congregations base dues on a small percentage (often
2%) of one's income. There are two important factors to note about
synagogue dues: (1) they are often less, overall, than the donations
done in some churches that have a policy of tithing 10%; (2) they are
often negotiable through the membership committee if one is unable to
pay, and such negotiation are kept private. People are not turned away
because of ability to pray.
It is important to note, however, that you do not have to be a member
of a synagogue in order to worship there. If you plan to worship at a
synagogue regularly and you have the financial means, you should
certainly pay your dues to cover your fair share of the synagogue's
costs, but no synagogue checks membership cards at the door (except
possibly on the High Holidays mentioned above, if there aren't enough
seats for everyone).
Synagogues are, for the most part, independent community
organizations. Individual synagogues do not answer to any central
authority. The various movements of Judaism do have organizations for
their synagogues, but these organizations have no real power over each
synagogue (the synagogue can always go independent).
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.10: What functions does a synagogue serve?
Answer:
Synagogues typically serve in three different capacities:
1. Beit tefilah, a house of prayer. Synagogues serve as a place where
Jews come together for community prayer services. Jews can satisfy
the obligations of daily prayer by praying anywhere; however,
there are certain prayers that can only be said in the presence of
a minyan (a quorum of 10 adult men), and tradition teaches that
there is more merit to praying with a group than there is in
praying alone. The sanctity of the synagogue for this purpose is
second only to The Temple. In fact, in rabbinical literature, the
synagogue is sometimes referred to as the "little Temple."
2. Beit midrash, a house of study. Jewish education does not end at
the age of bar mitzvah; the study of Judaism and sacred texts is a
life-long task. Synagogues offer education to both children and
adults and often have a well-stocked library.
3. Beit knesset, a house of assembly. Synagogues often have a social
hall for religious and non-religious activities. The synagogue
provides a place where matters of importance to the community can
be discussed, and social action concerns can be aired. Synagogues
often provide social welfare functions, collecting and dispensing
money and other items for the aid of the poor and needy within the
community.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.11: What is the name of the Jewish God?
Answer:
In Judaism God has several names. The most important name of God is
the Tetragrammaton, YHVH. Because Jews considered it sinful to
pronounce, the correct pronunciation of this name was forgotten -- the
original Hebrew texts only included consonants. Some conjecture that
it was pronounced "Yahweh". The Hebrew letters are named
Yod-Heh-Vav-Heh.
Jews also call God Adonai, or "my Lord." Since pronouncing YHVH is
considered sinful, Jews would use Adonai instead in prayers. When the
Masoretes added vowel pointings to the text of the Tanach in the first
century CE they gave the word YHVH the vowels of Adonai, to remind the
reader to say Adonai instead. Many Christian bible translators
misinterpreted this to mean that God's name was Jehovah, which is the
result of combining Adonai's vowels with YHVH's consonants, written
using Latin orthography in which "J" is prnounced as the English "Y."
All denominations of Judaism teach that the four letter name of God,
YHVH, is forbidden to be uttered except by the High Priest, in the
Temple. Since the Temple in Jerusalem is no longer extant, this name
is never pronounced in religious rituals by Jews. Orthodox Jews never
pronounce it for any reason. Some non-Orthodox Jews are willing to
pronounce it, but for educational purposes only, and never in causal
conversation or in prayer. Instead of pronouncing YHVH during prayer,
Jews say "Adonai".
Jews often build "fences" around the basic laws, so that there is no
chance that the main law will ever be broken. As such, it is common
Jewish practice among to restrict the use of the word "Adonai" to
prayer only. In conversation many Jewish people will call God
"HaShem", which is Hebrew for "the Name". Many Jews also write "G-d"
instead of "God". While these substitutions are by no means required
by Judaism (only the Hebrew name, not the English, is holy), they do
it to remind themselves of the holiness attached to God's name.
English translations of the Bible generally render YHVH as "LORD" (in
small capitals), and Adonai as "Lord" (in normal case). Scholars
disagree as to the meaning of the name Yahweh - many believe it means
something like "I am the One Who Is," or "I am that I am, and I cause
what is."
Other Jewish names of God include:
* Adonai Emet (Truth)
* Tzur Yisrael (The Rock of Israel)
* Elohei Avraham, Yitzchak v'Ya'acov (God of Abraham, God of Isaac,
God of Jacob)
* Ehiyeh sh'Ehiyeh (I Am That I Am)
* Avinu Malkeinu (Our Father, our King)
* Ro'eh Yisrael (Shepherd of Israel)
* Ha-Kadosh, Baruch Hu (The Holy One, Praised be He)
* Melech ha-M'lachim (The King of Kings)
* Makom (literally, the Place; means "The Omnipresent")
* Magen Avraham (Shield of Abraham)
There is more information in answer [5]12.24
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.12: What is the reason for a "minyon" (a quorum of 10 men
requried for certain prayers)?
Answer:
Note that the requirements for a minyan are not biblical in origin.
The reasons are rabbinic. The following are some sources:
* M Megillah 4:3 and BT. Meg. 23b list the required occasions for a
minyan: the sheva berakhot at a wedding; the chazarat ha-shatz of
the Amidah; the reading of Torah from the scroll and of Haftarah;
the kedusha (derived from Lev. 22:32, ve-nikdashti betokh benei
yisra'el, matching the word tokh with Num. 16:21, mitokh ha-edah,
where the context makes it clear that sanctification requires a
public.
* The number 10 is derived from Num. 14:27, where the ten spies
opposing the invasion were called an edah ra'ah. There were also
other derivations, one of them being the "ten righteous people"
that were lacking in Sodom.
* Soferim 10:7 adds Kaddish and barekhu to the rubrics requiring a
minyan, though here, the plain text would suggest that the minyan
could be seven (or even six) worshippers, after the number of
words in Judges 5:2. But later interpretation favored the reading
of this prescription as signifying that the numbers six or seven
refer to persons who, within a regular minyan of ten men, have not
heard the Kaddish or barekhu. If we read the Soferim passage
plainly it appears that the author(s), writing in Palestine, meant
to deal with situations when it was difficult to gather a minyan.
* The Talmud (YT Meg. 4:4 and Ber. 7:3 ) provides that if a minyan
was present to start with, but some people had left afterwards,
the service could conclude as if they were still present, provided
that the majority remain (so Rambam, Yad, Tefillah 8:8, Sh. A. O.
H, 55:4; and the Hafetz Chayim, Mishnah Berurah, # 24).
Note: If one cannot scrape up 10 minyan-qualified individuals
(traditional Judaism only accepts adult men; Reform also accepts adult
women), one can count the Torah as part of the Minyan. One can also
count a minor holding a chumash, as long as the group looks like it
could be 10 until you bother counting them. This is based on Tractate
Berachos 47b. The source is that Abraham first begged G-d to save
Sodom, Gemorra and 3 smaller towns if they had 50 people. He then fell
back to 45. Apparantly, therefore, if you can't get 10 per city, you
can rely on 9. But this is only if you can not possibly scrape up 10.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.13: What is the "Shema"?
Answer:
The "shema" is perhaps the "supreme" statement of Jewish belief.
Traditional Jews recite it four times a day and was to be the last
statement on a Jew's lips as they slip from life. The four times are:
* During the morning service (shacharit)
* During the afternoon service (mincha)
* During the evening service (ma'ariv)
* When sleeps come upon one
Children are often taught it at bedtime. The last letter "dalet" is
the numerical number "four"; in Kabbalah (Jewish Mysticism), this is a
daily reference to the divine in the mystical "four corners of the
earth", similar to the tzitzit on the four corners of the garment.
Reform Jews have refered to it as the "affirmation of Jewish faith."
The main part of the Shema reminds us to hear and remember that G-d is
one. It commands us to write the shema on the doors of our house and
on our gates (mezuzah), to speak the shema when we get up and when we
go to bed. It commands us to wear garments that remind us of G-d with
fringes.
Note the differences between the first and second paragraphs of Shema.
The first paragraph of Shema is written to the individual, and
therefore is in the singular. There is little guarantee in this world
that the righteous would prosper or the wicked fail. Therefore, the
first paragraph enjoins us to "love Hashem your G-d with ... all that
you have". Be it more, or be it less. The second paragraph is written
in the plural because it addresses the nation as a group. The fate of
the Jewish people does depend on whether or not we are found
deserving. Although this only holds in a group sense -- the group
suffers, not necessarily the least worthy of the nation. When the
nation is undeserving, there would be a famine in Israel. Eventually,
we deserved exile altogether. Therefore, when speaking to the nation
as a unit, the contingent basis of our posessions is noted.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.14: Where can I learn about the prayers before eating?
Answer:
Artscroll's siddur (see the [5]reading list) is a good place to start,
as is the Metzudah (linear) siddur. There are also a number of English
books on prayer by traditional sources. Again, the reading list is a
good place to start.
Another good resource is NCSY's guide to blessings, which is just a
list of blessings made before or after around a thousand different
foods, along with a small guide to the laws of blessings. It's a tiny
booklet, staple-bound like a bencher. It is available at
[6]www.ou.org.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.15: What is the structure of the morning service?
Answer:
Morning services are composed of 7 parts:
1. The morning blessings. In this part we thank G-d for another day.
Originally each blessing was said as you did that particular thing
for the first time that day--gird your belt, tie your shoes, learn
Torah, etc.. However today they are folded onto the begining of
services.
2. The order of sacrifices. The prophets tell us that someone who
sincerely studies the laws of sacrifices gets as close as possible
to offering one. So, we read the Mishnayos about the various
offerings in order to gain some measure of atonement.
3. Pesukei diZimrah (lit: verses of songs of praise). Some chapters
of Psalms, bracketed by an opening and closing blessing. The main
point of this part is to be a "warm-up", to get into the proper
frame of mind, before the next three parts. If you get to services
too late to say Pesukei diZimrah and still say the main prayers
with the congregation, you should skip them. Or perhaps skip all
but "Ashrei"--depending upon the time available. Most decisors
opine that you should still say the ones you skipped some time
during the day. The Vilna Gaon ruled that you should not. The
debate is whether the section exists only as warm-up, or primarily
as warm-up but also serves other purposes. As to whether someone
who has a short attention span is best served using up all of
one's attention on Pesukei diZimrah so that the later prayers
become mindless is a question for that person's Rabbi. It's
probably also related to where you stand on that debate.
Those of us of the Sesame Street sound-bite generation should be
working toward slowly building up that preparation time. Still,
there are days where such a person should just say the opening
blessing, Ashrei, the closing blessing, and then study Torah at
their seat while waiting for the congregation to get up to Shema.
The next three parts are three actual and distinct mitzvos.
4. The Shema, with two blessings before and two after.
5. The Amidah, the actual formal prayer.
6. Tachanun, a framework in which one is supposed to insert informal
prayers. In other words, the Amidah serves to remind man what he
ought to consider important, and therefore what his relationship
with G-d ought to look like. Tachanun has some of that, but it's
more actually relating to G-d, turning to your Parent with what's
on your mind. [Not that the masses actually remember that this is
what Tachanun is for. In practice, it is far too often yet another
formalized text with nothing personal interjected.]
7. The closing. Most famously, this includes Aleinu.
The afternoon service, coming in the middle of the workday, has only
Ashrei as an intro, leading to the Amidah, Tachanun and Aleinu. People
simply don't have the time for a longer service.
The evening service is obligatory only because universal customs ought
not be broken. It's not an obligation of the same magnitude of the
other two, and therefore they started it with the Shema, with no
warm-up.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.16: When should morning services start?
Answer:
The night ends at "Alot haShachar", the "rising of the morning". It
has two halachic definitions: Most rule it is 72 minutes before dawn,
some use the solar equivalent--16.1o (degrees) below the horizon. The
latter would come dawn+72 min if the sun were up for exactly 12 hours
that day. In the summer it would be longer, in the winter, later.
Others use 90 solar minutes.
The earliest you can say the morning blessings is Alot. The earliest
one can wear tzitzit is at "Misheyaqir", when "one can recognize"
which of the tzitzit strings are uncolored, and which are blue. (When
the proper blue dye used for tzitzit was / will be available.)
Misheyaqir also has two definitions: 11 degrees below the horizon or
50 standard minutes. The first is the norm.
Since you are supposed to wear tzitzit and tefillin for Shema, Shema
must be said after Misheyaqir as well. The Amidah must be said at or
after Haneitz haChamah, the sparkling of the sun, i.e., sunrise. This
is when the leading edge of the sun is at the horizon.
If you're checking your newspaper, you should find out if they're
publishing the time the leading edge of the center of the sun crosses
the horizon. If you say Shema well before Haneitz, you will have to
say it again as a lead-in to the Amidah. However, this may mean that
you can say it with tallit and tefillin at Haneitz, and then say it
again with the Amidah without equipment.
There are a number of packages out there that show you these times for
various locales. At the Aishdash site
([5]http://www.aishdas.org/kaluach), there is a front end to Kaluach's
JavaScript sunrise calculator. It's kind of unweildy, but it is
accurate within a couple of minutes for locations well below the
arctic circle.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.17: Why do people put their tallit over their heads when
they pray?
Answer:
Normally, they don't cover their heads for the entire service.
Typically, it is done just from Borechu through Shema, the Amidah, and
the Chazan's repetition of the Amidah. These are the times at which
talking is to be minimized. Even answering "amen" depends on where
you're up to, and what blessing or Kaddish one is answering. Covering
your head is a straightforward way to minimize distraction.
There is a second reason. The talmudic discussion of covering one's
head when praying is a little vague. Some take it to mean that this is
in /addition/ to the yarmulka. So, for many this is another reason to
cover one's head during the most critical parts of prayer.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.18: What is the importance of collective worship in
Judaism?
Answer:
Collective worship is critical in Judaism. There are actually two
notions behind gathering to pray:
1. One is praying as an individual, where the others provide an
environment more condusive to that prayer. This factor was even
more critical before the printing press, when many people also
relied on the cantor to provide the words.
2. The second is praying as a community. Not merely as a group of
individuals within a community, but the community's prayer to God.
After all, the covenant at Sinai (or, for non-Jews, the covenant
God made with Noah as he left the ark) was with the community as a
collective unit. There is a sanctity to the community that exceeds
the sum of its parts.
In both issues, the communal prayer is superlative over praying alone.
Of course, other factors come into play. Someone broken-heartedly
praying outside their child's hospital room, speaking to God from the
core of their being is still the superior prayer over one who might
feel confined from fully expressing themselves in public.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.19: What is the difference between Conservative Prayer
and Orthodox Prayer?
Answer:
The following are some of the changes made by Conservative Judaism in
regular prayers:
* Birkhot HaShakhar - Morning Blessings
Three of the early morning berakhot were modified to praise God
for having created each individual in God's image, a free person
and a Jew, rather than the conventional version which express
gratitude for not having been created a woman, a slave or a
non-Jew. Details on this modification can be found in "Siddur Sim
Shalom - A Halakhic Analysis", Conservative Judaism, Vol.41(1),
Fall 1988.
Conventionally Birkhot HaShakhar contains a number of passages
describing sacrifices and offerings in ancient times which can
only be recalled, not carried out. Most of these passages are
deleted from the Silverman Siddur, and even more from Siddur Sim
Shalom. The sacrificial ritual in ancient times was construed as
means by which a Jew gained atonement for sin. After the
destruction of the Temple and the consequential end of sacrifices
there, the Jewish people were deprived of this means. To replace
the readings on sacrifices, modern Conservative prayerbooks cite
the talmudic teaching that deeds of loving-kindness now atone for
sin; they draw upon rabbinic tradition to emphasize teachings
about atonement and necessary behavior.
Texts that have been added to this part of the service include
Leviticus 19:2, 14-18, Avot de Rabbi Nathan, 11a and Tractate
Sukkah 49b.
* Al HaNissim and the State of Israel
An innovation in Conservative prayer books is a liturgical
response to the creation of the modern State of Israel. It was
felt that this should be made in a manner that is integral to the
fabric of the service; Such a liturgical model already existed: Al
HaNissim, which is added to the service on Purim on Chanukah. Thus
a new, third Al HaNissim was composed, adapting the language and
style of the standard Hebrew text to produce a text that is used
on Yom Ha'Atzmaut, Israel's Independence Day. A Torah and Haftarah
reading for this day is also indicated. In the Al Hanissim
prayers, Siddur Sim Shalom follows the text of Rav Amram Gaon,
emending the text which expressed gratitude for miracles "in other
times, at this season" to now read "in other times, and in our
day". This adds a basic theological dimension that miracles are
not confined to a remote and unavailable past.
* Sacrifices in the Amidah
"Siddur Sim Shalom" presents multiple alternatives for the Shabbat
Musaf, but the Orthodox version that explicitly prays for the
resumption of animal sacrifice in a rebuilt Temple is not one of
them. Instead, Siddur Sim Shalom adopts an innovation from "The
Shabbat and Festival Prayerbook" in the Musaf Amidah; it changes
the phrase na'ase ve'nakriv (we will present and sacrifice) to asu
ve'hikrivu (they presented and sacrificed). The petition to accept
the "fire offerings of Israel" is removed from the Amidah.
There are similar modifications in the Rosh Hodesh Amidah. "Siddur
Sim Shalom for Shabbat and Festivals" does not present multiple
services; it presents one musaf for Shabbat, for festivals, and
for Rosh Hodesh. Within each service, the reader is offered a
traditional text, as well as an alternative text which eliminates
mention of sacrifices. The traditional Y'hi Ratzon meditation
("May it be your will, Adonai our God, and God of our Ancestors,
that the Temple be restored in our day...") following the Musaf
Amidah is restored. This is also restored in Va'Ani Tefilati.
* Other changes in Musaf
Following a modification found in the siddur of Rav Saadiah Gaon,
the Hebrew word ba-olam (in the world) is added to the daily
prayer for peace at the end of the Amidah, making explicit the
traditional Jewish concern for universal peace. A prayer for the
welfare of the community, recited following the Torah service on
Shabbat, was modified to include a phrase commending those who are
devoted to helping rebuild the Land of Israel.
* Tahanun - supplications following the weekday morning Amidah
The earliest sources about saying Tahanun is from the Tosefta in
Berakhot; The Geonim viewed this section as optional, the contents
were flexible as well. In his Siddur Maimonides also makes it
clear that there are various customs and he is merely citing his
own custom. Originally this point in the service was considered
appropriate for the personal supplications of each individual, and
it still is. Over the years, however, certain stylized passages
were printed as the fixed text; these contain references to the
physical desolation of Jerusalem and statements of extreme
self-abasement. To reflect present reality, such statements have
been deleted, other passages have adapted or abridged, and brief
portions of supplications by Rav Amram and Rav Saadiah Gaon have
been added. These are closer to us in spirit than many passages of
later origin which were canonized by the printing press. One's own
prayers are appropriate, and traditional.
* Egalitarian Hebrew formulations
The language of liturgical formulas in Siddur Sim Shalom reflects
the reality that in many congregations both men and women
participate in the service. Some prayers include references to
both the patriarchs and the matriarchs. Passages designed for use
on Simchat Torah include texts appropriate for formally
designating women as well as men as honorees on that occasion. The
prayer on behalf of the congregation (recited after the Torah
reading on Shabbat) has been emended to reflect the fact that
women as well as men are members of the congregation. The Mi
Sheberakh prayers contain forms for both male and female readers.
The meditations prior to putting on the tallit and tefillin
provide masculine and feminine forms.
* Nahum, on Tisha B'Av
Tisha B'Av commemorates the days on which both the First and
Second Temples were destroyed. The conventional text (Nahum)
speaks of Jerusalem as "a desolate and vacant city", laid waste
and deserted. These lines no longer bear any relation to reality.
As such the new text recalls the tragedy of ancient times, over
which we mourn, and recalls the desolation of Jerusalem in the
past. It also speaks of a "Jerusalem rebuilt from destruction and
restored from desolation". It asks that all who mourn Jerusalem of
old rejoice with her now, and it prays for the peace of that city.
* Shoah (Holocaust) Remembrance
"Siddur Sim Shalom" (original version) adds many passages for Yom
HaShoah that can be added to any weekday service, as well as a
formal reading. Several pages of readings are included in the
supplementary section for addition to any of the services held on
that day, and are followed by a formal reading arranged for
responsive use. The section concludes with a Mourner's Kaddish
similar in structure to the one on Yom Kipur.
* Mysticism and Hasidism
A surprising mystical and Hasidic influence appears in Siddur Sim
Shalom, as is illustrated by the numerous additions to the prayer
book which originated in these movements. The blessing for the new
moon (kiddush levanah) appears at the end of the Sabbath liturgy.
Another mystical element is the Raza DeShabbat, the "Vision of
Shabbat", which precedes the Sabbath evening service. Taken from
the Zohar, this passage depicts the enthronement of the Shekhinah.
Several of the alternative meditations which follow the amidot
stress joy, and request freedom from atzvit (sorrow) in classic
Hasidic fashion. In fact, a number of these passages are based on
the teachings of Rabbi Nachman of Bratslav. Some benedictions for
mitzvot are preceded by kavanot (meditations) which were
introduced into the liturgy by the Kabbalists.
* Adding Matriarchs to the Amidah
Two positions have been accepted by the Conservative movement on
this issue. One position states that, for a variety of reasons, it
is wrong to add the names of the Matriarchs to the Amidah. A
second position advances a halakhic argument that shows that such
changes are permissible. In all cases where the law committee has
validated more than one possible position, a congregation must
follow the ruling of its rabbi, who as mara d'atra [local halakhic
authority] has the sole responsibility and authority in making
such a p'sak [decision].
Note: When presenting the Matriarchs in the opening passage of the
Amidah, Conservative/Masorti siddurim do not add the word
"Imoteynu" (our Matriarchs), as the word "Avoteynu" is held to be
correctly understood as "our Ancestors", and not as "our
Patriarchs".
To better understand Conservative teshuvot and siddurim one should be
familiar with the findings of modern liturgical scholarship; this has
demonstrated not only the flexible nature of the liturgy in general,
including the Amidah. Suggested references:
* "Liturgy" entry in the "Encyclopaedia Judaica" Ismar Elbogen and
Raymond P. Scheindlin.
* "Jewish Liturgy: A Comprehensive History", JPS, 1993.
* Louis Finklestein's article on the Amidah in the "Jewish Quarterly
Review" (new series) volume 16, (1925-1926), p.1-43
* Joseph Heinemann "'Iyyunei Tefilla" Magnes, Jerusalem, 1981
* Seth Kadish "Kavvana: Directing the Heart in Jewish Prayer" Jason
Aronson Inc., 1997
* Jakob J. Petuchowski "Contributions to the Scientific Study of
Jewish Liturgy" Ktav, NY, 1970
* "Who knows four? The Imahot in Rabbinic Judaism" Alvin Kaunfer.
Judaism Vol 44. Winter 1995, p. 94-103
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.20: What is the Timeline of Women in the Rabbinate?
Answer:
The web site
[5]http://www.loyno.edu/~wessing/docs/KeyDatesJudaism.html provides a
timeline of Women's Leadership of Judaism in the US. There's a whole
chronology of women's ordination, in all religions, at
[6]http://www.guide2womenleaders.com/Chronolgy_Ordination.htm. Some
key dates, drawn from these sites as well as other sites, are:
* 1846. Reform Judaism in Gemany states that women are equal to men
in Judaism in terms of "religious privileges and duties." The
result is that in Reform Judaism, women are counted in the minyan
or quorum needed for public worship service, the daily prayer in
which a man thanks God for not having made him a woman is dropped,
girls and women are taught Torah and Talmud, and women and men sit
together in the congregation.
* 1875. Rabbi Isaac Mayer Wise founds Hebrew Union College (Reform)
in Cincinnati, and encourages women to attend. However, they
cannot be ordained as rabbis.
* 1886. The Jewish Theological Seminary (Conservative) is founded to
train rabbis.
* 1893. Two Jewish women, Josephine Lazarus and Henrietta Szold,
address the World's Parliament of Religions held in Chicago in
conjunction with the Columbian Exposition. The Congress of Jewish
Women, organized by Hannah G. Solomon, is held in conjunction with
the Parliament. The Congress of Jewish Women continues after the
Parliament as the National Council of Jewish Women (Reform), the
first national Jewish women's organization, with Hannah G. Solomon
as President.
* 1911. Hadassah, the Women's Zionist Organization of America, is
founded by Henrietta Szold (Conservative), who had earlier
attended Jewish Theological Seminary, to bring improved health
care to Palestine.
* 1921. The issue of ordaining a woman rabbi is first raised by
Martha Neumark, a student at the Hebrew Union College (Reform) and
daughter of a HUC professor. The HUC faculty and the Central
Conference of American Rabbis conclude that there is no reason not
to ordain women, but the HUC Board of Governors maintains the
policy of ordaining only men as rabbis.
* 1922. The first bat mitzvah in America takes place for Judith
Kaplan, daughter of Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, who subsequently
becomes the inspirer of Reconstructionism.
* 1935. Regina Jonas was ordained by the liberal Rabbi Max Dienemann
in Offenbach GERMANY, who was the head of the Liberal Rabbis'
Association. Being ordained was one thing, but finding a pulpit
was another. Regina Jonas found work as a chaplain in various
Jewish social institutions. Because of Nazi persecution many
rabbis emigrated and so many small communities were without
rabbinical support. This made it possible for her to be a rabbi
and to preach in a synagogue, but not for a long period. She was
soon ordered - like all Jews - into forced labor in a factory.
Despite this, she continued her rabbinical work, i.e. she
continued to teach and to preach. For more information, see
[7]http://www.hagalil.com/deutschland/berlin/rabbiner/jonas.htm.
* 1938. Tehilla Lichtenstein is the first woman (non-ordained) to
serve her congregation as rabbi after death of her husband, Rabbi
Morris Lichtenstein. Tehilla Lichtenstein serves as Leader of the
Society for Jewish Science from 1938 until her death in 1973.
* 1951-54. Paula Ackerman (non-ordained) in Meridian, Mississippi,
serves as rabbi to a congregation after the death of her husband,
Rabbi William Ackerman.
* 1968. The Reconstructionist Rabbinical College is founded in
Philadelphia based on the ideals of Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan, a
strong advocate of the equality of all persons.
* 1972. Sally Priesand is the first woman rabbi ordained in the
United States by a Jewish theological seminary, Reform Judaism's
Hebrew Union College in Cincinnati, Ohio.
* 1973. The first Jewish feminist conference convenes in New York
City.
* 1974. Sandy Eisenberg Sasso is the first woman ordained by the
Reconstructionist Rabbinical College.
* 1979. The Jewish Theological Seminary (Conservative) Faculty
Senate tables the issue of admitting women for the rabbinical
training as "provoking unprecedented divisions . . . . The bitter
divergence of opinion threatens to inflict irreparable damage."
* 1983. The Jewish Theological Seminary (Conservative) Faculty
Senate votes to admit women for rabbinical training.
* 1984. The Reconstructionist Rabbinical College faculty vote to
admit gay and lesbian students.
Conservative Judaism's Jewish Theological Seminary admits 18 women
into its rabbinical program.
* 1985. Amy Eilberg is ordained the first Conservative woman rabbi.
* 1987. There are 101 Reform women rabbis, constituting 7% of 1,450
Reform rabbis.
* 1988. The Jewish Women's Studies Project is begun by students and
faculty at the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College to promote
Women's Studies at that institution
* 1990. Survey by the Central Conference of American Rabbis (Reform)
shows that 57 out of 153 Reform women rabbis work full-time in
congregations that belong to the Union of American Hebrew
Congregations; 16 are Assistant Rabbis, 10 are Associate Rabbis,
and 31 are solo Rabbis. There are only 37 Reform women rabbis with
the requisite experience making them eligible to become senior
rabbi of a congregation of more than 900 members . Three years
earlier, there were only 7 women rabbis who were so eligible. As
of 1990, no woman rabbi has become senior rabbi of such a large
congregation. Only 3 women rabbis head congregations of 300-600
members, while 90 women rabbis have the qualifications to do so.
The Central Conference of American Rabbis (Reform) votes to admit
openly and sexually active gay men and lesbians to the rabbinate.
Earlier, Reconstructionism, Unitarian-Universalists, and the
United Church of Christ had begun ordaining lesbians and gay men.
* 1991. There are 168 women rabbis ordained by the Hebrew Union
College (Reform); 40% were ordained during the previous five
years; 80% were ordained during the previous ten years. Women
rabbis constitute about 10% of Reform rabbis.
* 1992. Rabbi Susan Grossman is elected as the first woman to serve
on the Committee on Law and Standards of Conservative Judaism's
Rabbinical Assembly.
* 1993. Conservative Judaism has ordained a total of 52 women rabbis
between 1985 and 1993. Of the total of twenty graduates who were
ordained in 1993, eleven were women (55%). June 1993 The Hebrew
Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion (Reform) has ordained a
total of 205 women rabbis. Of the 224 currently enrolled in the
Hebrew Union College, 101 are women, constituting 45% of the
student body.
* 1995. Bea Wyler, who had studied at the JTS in New York, became
the first woman rabbi in post war Germany at the Jewish community
of Oldenburg.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.21: Are extremely observant men permitted to pray at
home?
Answer:
Yes. It's common for a man to pray at home on a day off if the
schedule of the day's activities can't be reworked to fit it. However,
there are a few other factors that come into play.
Monday and Thursday have Torah reading. Many Orthodox men will work
harder to fit congregational prayer ("minyan") into the schedule on
those days. This is even more true on the first day of the Jewish
month (and the thirtieth of the previous month, when there is one),
which has both a special Torah reading /and/ additional prayers.
Similar concerns would apply on the minor holidays (limiting to days
where work is permitted), such as Hannuka and the intermediate days of
Sukkot and Passover. Additionally, when someone is in mourning (for
example, the first eleven months after one has lost a parent), there
is strong motive to attend every service due to the custom of saying
kaddish for the deceased.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.22: What is the Qetzatzah Ceremony?
Answer:
The "qetzatzah ceremony" is described in the Jerusalem Talmud
(Yerushalmi Kiddushin Chap. 1 and Midrash Ruth Rabba), and also
appears in the Babylonian Talmud (the Talmud referred to when no
adjective is used) at Kesuvos 28b. In general, it is a means of
effecting a deal. For example, the Malbim (a 19th cent commentator)
mentions it when writing on the book of Ruth. Ruth 4:8 says "that
[handing someone your shoe] was the contract in Israel." Malbim notes
that between the time of the story and the time of its writing, the
standard means was changed to ketzatzah. Both are still valid today,
the comment was about a shift in popularity, not validity.
Ketzatzah involes breaking a barrel of fruit in the middle of the
street and then making a formal announcement. An example of its use is
a ceremony used to publicize a family's disapproval of the lineage or
sexual history of someone marrying to one of their offspring. The
family would revoke the child's right to inherit. To formalize this
transfer, ketzatzah was performed announcing (translation from the
Talmud): Hear our brothers Israel! Our brother so-and-so married a
woman of improper lineage. We are afraid that our seed will be mixed
with his. Come take some fruit as a rememberance, so our seeds will
not get mixed.
According to the Malbim, the point of ketzatzah is to do something
that would make an impression not only on the adult witnesses, but on
the children as well. Ketzatzah was used to keep the memory of
something alive as long as possible.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 9.23: What time of day were the sacrifices offered?
Answer:
Pretty much all times of the daylight hours and part of the evening.
The morning Tamid (perpetual) offering was performed at or close to
sunrise every day. The evening Tamid was right before sunset. The
daily minchah (gift) flour offering was in the early afternoon. On
holidays there were also mussaf (additional offerings). In between
were voluntary offerings and various kinds of sin offerings, offerings
after birth or certain other lifecycle events. After sunset, anything
remaining from the day's services were offered.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.1: Does Halacha (Jewish law) permit intermarriage?
Answer:
According to post-Sinaitic Jewish law, a marriage can be contracted
only between two Jews, so an intermarriage is not recognized as a
Jewish marriage.
In some countries, the progressive Jewish movements recognize civil
marriages as Jewishly valid, irrespective of religion.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.2: I'm a Jew who married a gentile. Am I still Jewish?
Answer:
Yes. Marriage doesn't change your status.
With respect to your children, according to Conservative and Orthodox
Judaism, the children of Jewish mothers are Jewish, and the children
of gentile women are gentile unless converted. (An adult who converts
must accept the Obligation of the Commandments at the time of
conversion. A child who converts delays this acceptance until age 13
(12 for girls), thereby validating the childhood-conversion. If he
doesn't accept the commandments, he is not considered Jewish.)
Reform requires that a child born of a mixed marriage identify
publicly with Judaism (e.g., have a Jewish naming, Brit (if
appropriate), Bar/Bat Mitzvah, Confirmation, etc.) to be considered
Jewish by Reform. This is called the [5]"patrilineal descent"
decision.
The liberal Jewish movements (Reform, Progressive) often try to work
with intermarried couples to encourage them to remain involved in
Judaism, to raise their children as Jewish (with subsequent formal
conversion, or to meet the requirements for Reform Judaism), and to
educate the non-Jewish partner so that Jewish life at home is not
sabotaged (often, as a side-effect of this, the non-Jewish partner
makes an independent decision to convert). There is a group that works
on promoting services to intermarried families, called the [6]Jewish
Outreach Institute (JOI) <[7]http://www.joi.org/>. Since 1989, this
group has held several national conferences for Jewish communal
professionals and lay leaders to foster expertise in programming for
the nearly 600,000 intermarried families and their more than 700,000
children in North America. If you are interested in JOI's publications
or obtaining a directory of services, visit their [8]homepage, write
them at 1270 Broadway, Suite 609 New York NY 10001; contacted them via
Email at [EMAIL PROTECTED], or via telephone at +1-212-760-1440.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.3: I'm a Jew who accepted the tenets of another
religion, but now wants to practice Judaism again. Am I allowed? Am
I still Jewish?
Answer:
A Jew cannot become a non-Jew. This is because any Jew can do tshuva
(repentance or "return") up to the moment of death, and this includes
forsaking one's estrangement from Judaism. The three steps of Teshuvah
are based on the [5]Rambam.
A Jew who sins (e.g. by joining another religion) may lose the
privileges of being a Jew (e.g. participation in the Jewish community)
but at no point does a Jew become a non-Jew. For example, if a
particular activity is permitted to non-Jews, but forbidden only to
Jews, it remains a sin for this person.
In Judaism, repentance consists of admitting the sin, regretting that
one sinned, and resolving not to repeat the sin. In the case of a sin
that consisted of joining another religion, recanting would certainly
be involved--one would (in addition to admitting "I believed in X")
say "I regret that I believed in X" and "I will no longer believe in
X".
In English, one does not "repent to", one repents. In Hebrew, "to
repent" and "to return" are the same word. One returns to G-d. But one
returns to G-d by doing the above three actions.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.4: OK, then apart from halachic considerations, why do
many Jews of all types oppose intermarriage?
Answer:
Children of intermarriages are statistically less likely to identify
with Judaism than children raised by Jewish parents, so intermarriage
weakens the Jewish people. Therefore, Jews across the spectrum oppose
intermarriage in order to prevent this weakening.
A large part of Jewish observance and identity centers on the home,
family, and community. Religion is a part of daily life, in areas as
diverse as making a blessing before wearing new clothes for the first
time to thanking G-d before and after meals. Special occasions such as
Shabbat and holidays carry special customs and observances. A home
made by a Jew and a non-Jew is much less likely to be a "Jewish home".
Where children are involved, they are most likely to grow up with a
positive Jewish identity when they see both parents Jewishly
connected.
Also, for many people, a difference in religion is an added stress on
a relationship. For this reason, many Jewish parents discourage
intermarriage in their children in an honest attempt to help their
children find long-term happiness.
Given all this, what should be our attitude when intermarriage occurs?
There are some that believe the intermarried couple should be
ostracized. Others take a different view.
First, if there are no children involved (as sometimes happens with
elderly couple), then there is no real loss to the community in terms
of future generations. If there is no conversion, each partner just
practices their own religion.
If there are children, or potential children, involved, the issue is
different. Ostracizing the couple may have the side effect of
destroying any positive attitudes towards Judaism, ensuring the
children will not be Jewish. Remaining open to the couple, inviting
them to family ceremonies, and showing them the beauty of Judaism can
help educate the non-Jewish partner. Even if the partner doesn't want
to convert, it may convince the partner to raise the children Jewish,
and (if appropriate) have the children be formally converted into
Judaism. Often, having children will make a parent want to reconnect
with their spiritual heritage. The Jewish parent may feel an increase
desire towards reconnecting with Judaism, and keeping their children
connected. This desired would be destroyed if the couple had been
ostracized.
The best thing to do is to keep an open mind. Believe that the couple
is not lost. By demonstrating to them the joy and beauty of Judaism,
they may choose to return or increase their Jewish practices.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.5: Is objection to intermarriage a form of bigotry?
Answer:
The traditional objection to intermarriage is simply that it is one of
the 613 Mitzvot (commandments) that a Jew cannot and may not marry a
non-Jew. Of course one may and should look for reasons for this
Mitzvah, but the bottom line is that Mitzvot are done because they
were commanded by G-d.
Is this bigotry? Perhaps. Yet such exclusiveness is common in religion
-- and not just Judaism. On the other hand, the dictionary definition
of a bigot is "A person who is rigidly devoted to his own group,
religion, race, or politics and is intolerant of those who differ."
Although Jews are devoted to their own group or religion, they are not
intolerant of the other groups. Rather, the attitude is "live and let
live", and if one wants to become part of the Jewish community, one
should join the community.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.6: But I still want to intermarry? Do you know of a
Rabbi that performs intermarriages?
Answer:
Sigh. As Eliot Shimoff wrote:
I do not like this thread, it's dead
I do not like it, mark it "read"
I could not, would not, on the Net
I shall not, must not, on a bet
Decimal, octal, or binary
It isn't good to intermarry
I would not co-officiate
I wouldn't even approve a date!
I must not officiate-co
Absolutely, NO NO NO
I don't approve of marriage, inter
Summer, fall, spring, or winter
I know deep down I should hit K
Kill this thread, and save the day
I don't approve of intermarriage
But here is comes, our next net barrage. :-)
If you really insist on going through with the intermarriage after
everything you have read and you are in the United States, Frank F.
Smith wrote on soc.culture.jewish that you might want to contact
[5]The Rabbinic Center for Research and Counseling
([6]http://www.rcrconline.org/) in Westfield, NJ (908-233-2288
(automated message); 908-233-0419 (real person), 908-233-6459 (FAX)).
Founded in 1970, the Rabbinic Center for Research and Counseling is
the first organization established to promote research on
intermarriage and to serve the needs of intermarrying and intermarried
couples. The Rabbinic Center provides a list of rabbis who officiate
at intermarriages, conducts and promotes research on intermarriage,
offers premarital and marital therapy for intermarried couples and
their families, and presents a variety of programs specifically geared
to the needs of intermarried couples. Their [7]list of rabbis is
available at [8]http://www.rcrconline.org/rabbi.htm. To obtain the
list by mail, send your name and address with a check for $20 to the
Rabbinic Center, 128 East Dudley Avenue, Westfield, New Jersey 07090.
In addition to the list of over 290 rabbis, you will receive some
articles on intermarriage and on the programs the Center offers for
intermarried couples. The list will be sent by return mail. Please add
$10 if you want the list sent by fax or email and add $20 for Federal
Express. For telephone information on the List of Rabbis Who Officiate
at Intermarriages, call (908) 233-2288. Note: All rabbis on the list
are members either of the Central Conference of American Rabbis or of
the Reconstructionist Rabbinical Association; the list is updated
monthly, and that some rabbis have conditions under which the
officiate (such as raising the children as Jewish).
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.7: How does one convert?
Answer:
Please Note: Potential converts should be aware that, depending on the
movement that performs the conversion, other movements may or may not
recognize their conversion. For example, Orthodox movements do not
recognize all Reform conversions, most Conservative conversions, and
even some Orthodox conversions. In general, the more liberal the
movement, the more accepting it is of other movement's conversions;
the more orthopractic the convertion, the more acceptable it is more
movements. However, the question of Jewish status in Israel is
different. Jews (regardless of affiliation; regardless of conversion
status) may receive Israeli citizenship under the Law of Return. Once
in Israel, one's acceptance as a "Jews" is usually up to the Orthodox
religious authorities, who may or may not regard a non-Orthodox
conversion as halachically-valid regardless of the affiliation on your
Israeli identity card.
Conservative and Orthodox Jews require that the potential convert be
instructed about how to live as a Jew, and undergo kabbalat ol mitzvot
[agreement to do the commandments], mila [circumcision for men], and
tevila [immersion in a 'mikvah' ritual bath], and that the procedure
be supervised by a beit din [court] of three. Note that the members of
the Bet Din must be acceptable witnesses. According to the Orthodox
Jewish law, a witness must scrupulously observe all the laws,
particuarly Shabbat. From an Orthodox standpoint, therefore, any Jew
who does not follow Orthodox standards of practice--rabbi or
not--would not be qualified to sit on a Bet Din.
The [5]Reform movement requires that the potential convert agree to
observe the commandments (according to Reform standards) and
participate publicly in the community, but they do not require mikva
or mila. Reform recommends that the potential convert be made aware of
mikva and mila, and that their conversion would be unacceptable to
Orthodox Jews, but such notification is not required. In fact, in the
pamphlet "Becoming a Jew", published by the UAHC/CCAR Commission on
[6]Reform Jewish Outreach, it says in response to the question "If I
convert with a Reform rabbi, will all rabbis consider me to be a
Jew?":
Reform, Reconstructionist, and under certain circumstances,
Conservative rabbis recognize the validity of conversions performed
by rabbis of all branches of Judaism. Many Orthodox rabbis,
however, do not recognize non-Orthodox conversions. Your sponsoring
rabbi will be able to discuss further any implications of
conversion under his or her auspices for you.
The Reform portion of the FAQ contains [7]contact information on how
to start the conversion process.
Conservative rabbis will accept Reform conversions with mila and
tevila, regardless of the observance level of the beit din, for the
sake of intergroup harmony.
The debate among movements as to the acceptability of different
procedures remains unresolved, and is unlikely to ever be resolved
(and certainly will not be resolved in network discussions). The
reasons for this depend on from which movement the question is asked.
And so the reasoning of each movement needs to be stated separately.
Liberal Judaism views this as a question of stringency. Therefore, for
Liberal Judaism to say "I will comply with the Orthodox standard" is
to acknowledge an insufficiency of its own standards. Obviously, then,
non-Orthodox rabbis are unwilling to leave all conversions to the
Orthodox (even though this may seem like an efficient compromise from
a practical point of view.) Conversely, for a Orthodox Judaism to say
"Liberal standards are acceptable" is to acknowledge a superfluity of
its stricter standards, an equally unlikely scenario.
Orthodox Judaism views this as a question of objective reality. A
non-Jew does or does not become Jewish by a particular procedure. This
is in some ways analagous to the procedure by which a person becomes a
naturalized citizen. Just as the oath of allegiance that the person
takes to become a citizen is only the end of a process, and only
certain judges may administer that oath; so to (l'havdil) the Beit
Din, Tevilah (immersion), and circumcision (if male) are the
culmination of a process and may only be administered by certain
rabbis. This is obviously unacceptable to Liberal Judaism, as part of
the procedure is an understanding and acceptance of the world view of
Orthodox Judaism.
If you are still interested after reading the above, the following
will help you start:
1. First, get in touch with a rabbi in the movement with which you
wish to associate:
+ Orthodoxy: Consult your local rabbi.
+ Conservative: The Rabbinical Assembly, the organization of
rabbis affiliated with the Conservative movement in Judaism,
has established a national hotline to provide free advice,
information, and literature on the Conservative movement's
programs for people who wish to convert to Judaism. The
number in the US is (800) 275-6532 [800 ASK-N-LEARN].
+ Reform: Consult a local Reform rabbi. If you want to talk to
someone by Email, look at the answer to [8]Section 18.7,
question 4 in the Reform FAQ. Rabbi Celso Cukierkorn also
provides conversion support for those in far-flung
communities interested in Reform conversion; see
[9]http://www.convertingtojudaism.com/ for details.
2. Second, start reading. A good place to start is the General part
of the S.C.J reading list, in the section [10]Where do I start?.
3. Third, you might consider exploring the [11]Conversion Web Site
(<http://www.convert.org>). This site, run by Dr. Lawrence J.
Epstein, contains information on conversion to Judaism in a manner
that hopefully avoids any partisan leanings. USA addresses and
phone numbers for obtaining information from the Orthodox (RCA),
Conservative, Reform and Reconstructionist movements are provided.
Another good site is Rabbi Celso Cukierkorn's
[12]http://www.convertingtojudaism.com/ .
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.8: What about adults who are not circumcised?
Answer:
Adult converts must also undergo some form of circumcision. In the
Orthodox and Conservative movements, actual circumcision is required
unless, of course, the convert is already circumcised (at which point
a pinpricking is performed to draw blood, an inherent part of the
act). In the Reform movement, circumcision for converts is recommended
but not required.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.9: What does the word "Jew" mean?
Answer:
There are at least two totally distinct meanings of the word Jew.
The one that is germane to most of the issues of SCJ is what might
best be described as a "member of the Jewish people." The people who
are generally considered to belong to this group are enumerated under
the heading "Who is a Jew", below.
Although membership in "Am Yisrael," as we call the Jewish people, is
determined by religious criteria, these criteria do not include the
actual practice of Judaism. So Am Yisrael is truly a group of people
who identify themselves as such, and not just a religion. Some people
refer to Am Yisrael as a nation.
Because many people have joined Am Yisrael through conversion over the
years, Jews are not, at this point, a single ethnic group, any more
than the French people. There are Jews of several different
ethnicities, as described elsewhere in this FAQ.
Nevertheless, there is an group that, for better or worse, is often
described as Jews: the descendants of the ancient Hebrews, many of
whom were dispersed across much of the earth during Roman times. And
the vast majority of Am Yisrael belong to this group. To avoid
confusion, we shall refer to this group as "descendants of the ancient
Hebrews."
It is sometimes unclear whether a frequently asked question about Jews
refers to Am Yisrael or to the descendants of the ancient Hebrews. We
shall give separate answers in case of confusion.
In soc.culture.jewish, speaking as a Jew has the implication that one
is currently Jewish, and not practicing another religion. Hence, a
person born Jewish but practicing Islam should not write "I'm a Jew
who accepts Muhammad's prophecy" but rather the more truthful "I'm a
practicing Muslim of Jewish ancestry." Of course, Jews who practice
other religions are welcomed and encouraged to return to practicing
Judaism at any time.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.10: Who is a Jew?
Answer:
You had to ask this question? You really had to ask "who is a Jew?"??
Come on, couldn't you have asked a hard question, like whether Adam
had a pippik or not? (pippik means navel, a/k/a 'belly button')
For thousands of years the answer was simply someone born of a Jewish
mother, or someone who undertook a conversion, which involved
accepting the yoke of the commandments, an immersion in a mikveh
[ritual bath], and for men, circumcision, the latter two in the
presense of witnesses. And then came modern times. Hooboy! You sure
you aren't interested in Adam's pippik?
Anyway, then came modern times, and along came new answers. First the
oldtimers complained that the newtimers weren't kosher to do a
conversion and then the newtimers got newfangled about the yoke and/or
the immersion and/or the circumcision and boy did the oldtimers really
got unhappy with this and then the issue got more confusing when the
Israeli government started guaranteeing automatic citizenship to Jews
resulting in a play it by ear like no one who takes up other religions
is accepted but the latest round of yelling was when the newtimers
started accepting Jewish father and Jewish upbringing and at this
point we give up and are asking all prospective posters of this
question to first tell us whether Adam had a pippik.
The only thing that is universally agreed is that the practicing of
other religions is the same as the rejection of Judaism.
Even within Orthodoxy the answer gets, uh, "flexible" at times. (You
thought this was just newfangled vs oldfangled? Heh!) When the Nazis
were trying to figure out whether to murder the Karaites quickly or
slowly, they asked several Orthodox rabbis if the Karaites were Jewish
or not. (You figured out the answer? Maybe you belong in yeshiva!)
Nineteenth century Samaritan massacres by Islamic zealots were stopped
when they got official word that Samaritans are Jews, i.e., people of
the book. There have been conflicting answers regarding the Ethiopian
Jews.
Another bit of Orthodox "flexibility" comes regarding Conservative
conversions. Such a person (a sofek) is not counted as Jewish for
anything positive, but is often treated as Jewish for things negative,
just in case. Thus, a sofek may not be called to the Torah, or even be
counted for a minyan, but would not be treated as a Shabbos goy. (He
would be expected to do a divorce in the traditional manner, but this
shouldn't be a problem, since as a Conservative he holds by that too.)
Conservatives often act the same towards Reform conversions, and even
within all three movements, there is often rejection of lenient
leaning conversions.
Reform Judaism rules that the children of two Jewish parents are
considered Jewish. Reform also rules that when one parent is Jewish
and the other gentile, the identity of the child as Jewish must be
established subsequently through Jewish education and positive Jewish
acts such as Bar Mitzvah, Confirmation, etc. This is known as the
"[5]Patrilineal descent" ruling, because it considers the child of a
Jewish father and gentile mother to be Jewish without a conversion
ceremony, as opposed to "Matrilineal descent" in which the child of a
Jewish woman is automatically Jewish, irrespective of paternity or
subsequent practice. If you want to look at [6]the text of the
decision, which is a recurring debate topic on S.C.J, it may be found
at the URL
[7]http://www.ccarnet.org/cgi-bin/resodisp.pl?file=mm&year=1983.
While countless treatises have been written on this subject, some
readers recommend the Chabad/Lubavitch booklet "Who is a Jew?" by R'
J. Immanuel Schochet, available from SIE, 788 Eastern Pkwy, Brooklyn,
NY 11213.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.11: What is the origin of Matrilineal Descent?
Answer:
The Torah does not always state every law explicitly. In the case of
Matrilineal Descent, the practice is derived from Deuteronomy 7: 4,
"Because he will lead astray your son from before Me" To understand
this verse, look at the preceding verse, which states: "And you shall
not intermarry with them, your daughter you shall not give to his son
and his daughter you shall not take for your son". Verse 4 should have
stated "Because SHE will lead astray your son", for the non-Jewish
girl that your son married ('your' meaning Jewish) should be the one
that would lead your son astray. So who is the 'HE'? It might be the
girl's father, but in general, women leave their father's house and
live in their husband's house; they would then not be living with her
father. Hence, it would not make sense for the girl's father to lead
"your son" astray if your son doesn't live with him.
The Rabbis concluded that 'HE' is the man that your daughter married,
and 'your son' mentioned in verse 4 is your grandchild, meaning Jewish
grandchild. Thus, verse 4 is referring back to the middle section of
verse 3. It reads like this, "your daughter you shall not give to his
son because he will lead astray your son" This shows that the child of
a Jewish girl and a non-Jewish boy will be Jewish.
It is not uncommon for the Torah to refer to a grandchild as an actual
child. For instance, Kings I 15: 11 states, " And Asa did that which
was correct in the eyes of God just like David his father". David was
not Asa's father. He was his great-great-grandfather.
Additionally, Leviticus 24:10 speaks of the son of an Israelite woman
and an Egyptian man as being "among the community of Israel" (ie, a
Jew). On the other hand, in Ezra 10:2-3, the Jews returning to Israel
vowed to put aside their non-Jewish wives and the children born to
those wives. They could not have put aside those children if those
children were Jews.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.12: I've heard that Jewish parents consider an
intermarried child as "dead". Is this true?
Answer:
There are many believe that Judaism teaches that the family must
consider as dead (and as a result, perform appropriate mourning
practices such as sitting "shiva") for a child who marries a non-Jew.
However, it is not clear the anyone does this. It is definitely not
halacha (Jewish law), nor is it widespread enough to be a custom.
This "legend" arose because, until recently, those who had interfaith
marriages often abandoned Judaism, becoming apostate Jews. The custom
of sitting shiva for apostates seems to be based on a misunderstanding
of a passage in the Or Zarua (13th cent), which stated that Rabbenu
Gershom (11th cent) sat shiva for his son, who had become a Christian.
My understanding is that Rabbenu Gershom sat shiva when his son died,
despite the fact that he had apostasized, not when the son became a
Christian. The halakhic discussion of this point, which starts in the
Or Zarua, goes back and forth on whether or not we follow that
practice, but, there is no suggestion that we should sit shiva when
someone leaves Judaism.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 10.13: Why is the conversion process so complicated? The
matriarchs didn't have to convert.
Answer:
Jewish tradition dates itself back to Sinai. In other words, "the
Torah" that the Jews recieved in the desert includes not only the text
of the Five Books, but also a vast body of what we generally call Oral
Torah. This means that the laws of conversion, or at least, the
principles from which they derive, are as old as the Torah.
Before the covenant at Sinai, there wasn't really Judaism per se. One
could join the earlier covenant that G-d made with Abraham, but there
could be no parallel to the conversion of today. The forefathers'
wives therefore didn't need to formally convert. And, depending upon
the sequence of events, if Jethro became a Jew before the revelation
at Mount Sinai (which is the order the stories are told in the text)
he didn't have to formally convert either.
We do find that the Israelites who left Egypt were taken through the
same steps that a convert would take today: the men were obligated to
circumcise themselves before leaving Egypt, they immersed themselves
three days before the revelation, and they were formally asked if they
would accept the yoke of observance the day before recieving the
decalogue. The Talmud find allusions in the book of Ruth that indicate
that she converted according to the current process. The same word,
"geir", is used in the Torah to describe two kinds of people. As this
causes confusion, the Talmud utilizes adjectives to distinguish the
two. The "geir tzedek" (righteous convert) is what we usually think of
when we say "geir". However, there is also the person who decides to
observe the 7 categories of laws required by G-d's covenant with Noah.
In modern parlance such a person is called a "Noachide" (or Noahide).
How does this relate to "geir"? Here's how. A Noachide who agrees to
live in a Jewish Israel, within a government run by Torah law (such as
that of the 1st Temple period, or under the Sanhedrin, or after the
messiah establishes a third commonwealth), but as a non-Jew is called
a "geir toshav" (a resident alien). A geir toshav only goes to court
(which can be any three observant Jewish men of sound mind) and
proclaims his/her acceptance. Because of the ambiguity of the term
"geir", people reject our beliefs about the origins of the Oral Torah
assume the two, geir tzedek and geir toshav, are identical. This would
make it seem that the text is only obligating a proclamation of
acceptance. This, however, leads to inconsistancies. On the one hand,
"one law shall you have for yourselves, for the geir and for the
native of the land". Including rituals. This expression is used
(amongst other places) in discussing fasting on Yom Kippur, where the
punishment is phrased as "he will be cut off from amongst his people,
Israel". So, this geir is a member of Israel. However, the word "geir"
as used in a verse about working on the Sabbath does not assume that
when G-d speaks to Israel, the geir is included. "Do not do any work,
[neither] you, your son, your daughter, your servant, your
maid-servant, your animal, and the geir who is within your gates." The
geir isn't included amongst the "you". There are numerous examples of
each side of this dilemma.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 11.1.1: Dress: Why do some Jewish women wear wigs or cover
their hair with a snood, beret, tichel, turban, kerchief or hat?
Answer:
Within Orthodoxy, it is considered a breach of modesty for a married
woman to have uncovered hair while in the presence of men other than
her husband. Customs differ as to how much hair can be showing beneath
the head covering, or if a wig is better/worse than a hat of some
sort.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 11.1.2: Dress: Why do many Jewish men wear head coverings
(variously referred to as "yarmulkas," "skullcaps," and "kipot")?
Answer:
The customary Jewish head covering (for simplicity, we'll call it a
kipa (singular of kipot), although all the terms refer to
approximately the same thing) is a sign of humility for men,
acknowledging what's "above" us (G-d). An additional explanation is
that in ancient Rome, servants were required to cover their heads
while free men did not; thus, Jews covered their heads to show that
they were servants of G-d. It's necessary for men to cover their heads
during certain prayers (whether it be by a kipa or another
headcovering), and for one making blessings all day, it's inconvenient
to keep donning and removing a kipa. In some places, the type of kipa
and way of wearing it expresses affiliation with a particular yeshiva
or political viewpoint. In other places, it doesn't really matter.
Many Ashkenazi rabbis acknowledge that wearing a head covering at all
times was once considered an optional "midat chasidut" [pious act] but
that nowadays, full-time head covering is the norm except under
extenuating circumstances.
Sephardic communities generally did not have the custom of wearing a
kipa all the time.
Some diaspora Jews leave off the kipa at school, work, or when
testifying in court, because of real danger or uneasiness in appearing
in the secular world with an obvious symbol of Jewishness.
Many non-Orthodox Jews (and some modern Orthodox Jews) do not always
wear a kipa. This is because some sources make covering the head by a
Jewish male a special practice of the pious (midat chasidut). However,
these movements do recognize that it is a Jewish way of showing
reference and respect, as well as a positive means of identification
(which can serve as a barrier against assimilation). Some movements
have specific recommendations as to the time that a kipa is worn; for
example, Conservative practice is to cover the head in the following
situations:
* Whenever in the sanctuary of a synagogue.
* When praying and when studying or reading from sacred literature.
* Whenever performing any ritual.
* When eating, since eating is always followed by a benediction.
Some follow the minhag of certain Jewish communities in Germany
where they cover their heads during the blessing before the meal
and during the benedictions after the meal, but not during the
meal itself.
In Israel wearing a kipa also has a social significance. While wearing
a kipa shows that you are somewhat religious, not-wearing one is like
stating "I'm not religious". The style of kipa in Israel can also
indicate political and religious affiliations.
The wearing of the kipah at school and work has increased in recent
years. These are also affectionately called "beanies," "holy
headgear," "Yamahas," "Yid-lids," and "Kapeles." (Similarly, some hair
coverings for married women are affectionately called "shmattehs.")
On Usenet, some related, but not necessarily common, "Jewish" smilies
might be:
(;;:-)
Clean-shaven smiley wearing a kipa
@:-)
Modest married smiley wearing snood/beret
{:-)
Modest married smiley wearing sheitel (wig)
[|:-)}
Smiley wearing black fedora and short beard
{|B-)==
Smiley wearing glasses, streimel (fur hat), and long beard
(;{8-{)}
Smiling bearded guy with (most of) his own hair and a kipa
:---)
Antisemitic long-nosed smiley
From whence does the term originate? The word yarmulke is Yiddish.
According to Leo Rosten's The Joys of Yiddish, it comes from a Tartar
word meaning skullcap. Some rabbis claim it comes from the Aramaic
words "yerai malka" (fear of or respect for The King). The Hebrew word
for this head covering is kippah or kipa (pronounced key-pah).
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 11.1.3: Dress: What is a Tallis? Tzit-tzit(those fringes)?
Why do Jews wear them?
Answer:
The Torah commands us to wear tzitzit (fringes) at the corners of our
garments as a reminder of the commandments [Num. 15:37-41, which is in
the third paragraph of the Sh'ma, recited during the morning and
evening prayers]:
Speak to the Children of Israel and say to them that they shall
make themselves tzitzit on the corners of their garments,
throughout their generations and they shall place upon the tzitzit
of each corner a thread of blue wool. These shall be your tzitzit,
and when you see them, you shall remember all of God's commandments
so as to keep them. You will then not stray after your heart and
eyes after which have lead you to immorality. You will thus
remember and keep all My commandments, and be holy to your God.
This is reiterated in Dvarim (Deuteronomy) 22:12:
You shall make for yourselves twisted threads on the four corners
of your garment with which you cover yourself.
This commandment only applies to four-cornered garments, which were
common in biblical times but are not common anymore. Since the normal
clothing in our time does not have four square corners, Traditional
Jews wear a garment that is specifically made to have four corners so
that the mitzvah can be fulfilled. This is known as the "Tallit Katan"
and is usually worn under the shirt. This garmet is similar to a
poncho. The tallit katan is worn under the shirt, sometimes with the
tzitzit hanging out so they can be seen.
All garments of a certain size or larger that have at least four
corners must tzitzit attached. The original requirement was to have a
blue thread among the other threads. However, since the precise shade
of blue is no longer known and the source of the dye used, only the
other threads are used (except among certain chassidic groups that
claim to know the dye formula). Typically, these threads are white.
Why? Although technically, they can be of any color, there is a debate
as to which color is the ideal: some say they should be white, some
say the color of the garment. The question is avoided by wearing a
whilte garment.
Note: There is a complex procedure for tying the knots of the tzitzit,
filled with religious and numerological significance. The tying
pattern symbolizes the 613 traditional commandments in the Torah.
Why do tallit typically have blue or black stripes? The reason why the
tallis is striped is simply because that was the fashion in Greece and
Rome. But this doesn't answer the question of why blue or black?
Tzitzis are supposed to include a thread of blue wool in each tassle.
Most believe we do not know the specific dye needed for the mitzvah.
In memory of this dye, some adopted a custom to place a blue stripe on
the garment itself. Others decided to add a black stripe of mourning
for the lost element of the mitzvah. The black stripe gained
popularity in Europe of the 15th through 19th centuries, when
black-and-white clothing was more common for Jews in general. The blue
stripe is now seeing a revival in the 20th and 21st centuries, but
it's actually the older of the two customs. It just seems to us to be
more modern. Sepharadic Jews believes the debate over what color is
appropriate precludes wearing colored stripes, so they wear white
stripes (or a different weave) on their talleisim. Maimonides was of
the "same color as the garment" camp. For Baladi Yemenite Jewry (those
Yemenite Jews that resisted the influx of Syrian customs), Maimonides
is the final word on Jewish law. So, they do not wear a tallis of any
particular color. One will often find an older, more traditional,
Yemenite man wearing a rich blue or red tallis with matching strings.
With or without stripes.
A tallis can be made of any fabric. Ideally it should be wool or
linen, as there is a rejected opinion that requires one of those two.
However, since it's a rejected opinion, using anything else is no big
deal. In practice, however, since you can't find linen strings to hang
on the tallis and you can't put wool strings on a linen garment due to
shaatnez, Wool is the norm (at least in Orthodox, Sepharadi, and
Yemenite circles). Some even make a point of wearing a wool garment
for the tzitzis worn under the shirt. As for the minority of the
garment (if it is made of wool): assuming you avoid linen, any other
thread can be included in the minority of the garment -- silk,
artificial fibers or metal.
During prayers, the custom is to wear a four-cornered shawl with
tzitzit (Tallis Gadol) and pray while wrapped in it. There are
different customs as to when this is done. Most Ashkenazic men will
begin wearing the Tallis when they get married. In some Sephardic and
German-Ashkenazi communities, a boy will put on a tallis when he
becomes a bar-mitzvah (13 years old). There are some communities that
begin this earlier. Customs vary among liberal Jews as to who wears a
tallis, and when it's worn.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 11.1.4: Dress: What are those black boxes and leather
straps Jewish men wear?
Answer:
They are called "tefillin" (mentioned in the Torah as "totafos", and
often seen in English translations as "frontlets"). They contain
parchments with verses from the Torah. During the weekday morning
service, one of the boxes (the "Hand t'filluh") is placed upon the
left arm so that it rests against the heart, and the suspended leather
strap is wound around the left hand, and around the middle finger of
that hand. The other box (the "Head t'filluh") is placed upon the
head, above the forehead, so as to rest upon the cerebrum. This is in
fulfillment of the Torah commandments. If you go to a traditional shul
and lack tefillin, you can be sure that someone will lend you his and
assist you in fulfilling this mitzvah.
Note that the actual commandment is to wear them anytime, all the
time. That is, anytime a day for a moment to fullfill the obligation,
and all the time to fullfill the non-obligatory commandment. The
rabbis forbade wearing them at nightime (except under very specific
circumstances) so they must be worn during the day only.
Traditionally, we consider wearing them for prayers important, though
that should not be confused with the actual commandment. Hence, their
primary use during services.
The two boxes each contain four sections of the Torah inscribed on
parchment. These passages cite:
1. The Shema (Deuteronomy 6:4-9) - pronouncing the Unity of The One
G-d.
2. Vehayah (Deuteronomy 11:13-21) - expressing G-d's assurance to us
of reward that will follow our observance of the Torah's precepts,
and warning of retribution for disobedience to them.
3. Kadesh (Exodus 13:1-10) - the duty of the Jewish people to always
remember the redemption from Egyptian bondage.
4. Vehayah (Exodus 13:11-6) - the obligation of every Jew to inform
his children on these matters.
A good summary of the laws and customs regarding Tefillin may be found
at [5]http://www.ahavat-israel.com/ahavat/torat/tefillin.asp.
One of the medieval blood libels was to tell gentile peasants that
Jews poisoned wells, and received coded magic instructions in small
black boxes. The mobs would destroy the expensive tefillin to open
them, and mistake the Hebrew verses as "magic codes," followed by the
usual rape, murder, and pillage of Jews that (alas) characterized much
of medieval Europe.
Note that in some congregations, women also wear tefillin. Although
halakha exempts women from this mitzvah, it does not explicitly
prohibit them from following it. Some segments of Orthodoxy do feel
that actions that are not commanded must be considered as forbidden.
Others feel that people should not take on additional responsibilities
until they fully carry out those actions that are commanded. Thus,
while women such as Bruria (Rabbi Meir's wife) or Rashi's daughters
may have been on a high enough level, women nowadays are not on a
level that would allow them to wear tefillin.
However, non-Orthodox movements, and some liberal segments of the
Orthodox community, do permit it. In those movements that permit the
practice, the wearing of teffilin has become an important way for
Jewish women to express their Judaism.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 11.1.5: Dress: Why do many Jewish men sport beards and/or
long sideburns?
Answer:
The Torah, the Five Books of Moses, has a commandment not to shave the
corners of the head. [Specifically, Leviticus 19:27 says, "Do not
round the corner of your head."] The Torah also forbids a male Jew
from removing hair from one's sideburns and temple are (known as
pei'ot ha-rosh). Actually, the sideburns merely have to be long enough
that one can pull on the hair, and the beard area can be shaved with
something other than a sharp blade (many people accept the use of
electric shavers). But specifically within the Chassidic community,
there is a custom not to shave (and frequently not even to trim) the
beard, and to permit the sideburn area (all the way up to the top of
the ear) to grow long as well (the long sideburns are called peyot) .
Some tuck the hair up under their kipot/skullcaps, while others curl
the hair. Many Orthodox say the payes (a.k.a. earlocks/sidelocks)
begin right at the temple, to just behind the ear, and must grow no
shorter than the top of the cheekbone. Then they are to be worn pushed
forward of the ear so as to be visible. Many, following Rabbi Nachman,
grow them long because he said he could "pull them by their payess out
of hell" once he was in Paradise!
Another note related to the "not rounding of the corners". This is in
direct relation to the passage about not harvesting the corners of the
field, but leaving it alone for G-d. Finally, in not rounding "the
four corners" of the face, we have a comparison with the tzitzis at
the four corners of the tallit. People forget that the hair, the
harvesting, and the tallit are all mitzvot.
On a practical level, shaving or trimming of the beard is not
permitted on the Sabbath or Holidays, and for a few stretches during
the year [such as portions of the time between Pesach and Shavuos]. A
beardless man will grow days or weeks of stubble, but a bearded man
who doesn't shave or trim his beard during that time will not look
significantly different.
To be specific, the Law is that one must not use a straight razor
(including safety-razors) on one's temples or to shave one's beard.
Those Jewish men who have wanted to be clean-shaven have had various
options; in the past century, either depilatory powder (ancestor to
Nair), or electric shavers. Electric shavers (at least most of them;
check with your local Orthodox rabbi for acceptable brands) function
like a scissors: two relatively dull blades pinch off the hair, rather
than one very sharp blade slicing it off.
Chasidim and some others have kabbalistic reasons for growing a beard,
so they will not take advantage of modern technology. Otherwise,
Jewish men having beards have it for other reasons, be they simply "to
look Jewish" or style or whatever.
As for sidelocks, that is a result of a peculiar interpretation of the
law against shaving one's temples. The basic law is that there must
remain enough hair to bend it over with one's fingers; that can be as
little as 1/2 inch or so. Some, notably Hungarian chasidim and
Yemenites, do not cut the sidelocks at all, and they grow very long.
Most chasidim have short sidelocks: thin, 2-3", that they tuck behind
their ears, so you won't see them.
Many who grow long peyos do so for Kabbalistic reasons. One of the
opinions in Kabbalah is that the peyos need to be worn long only until
the beard grows in. Once the beard grows, the peyos of the side of the
head should not be allowed to grow down beyond where the sides of the
beard begin to appear.
Finally, some Jewish men just don't like to shave.
------------------------------------------------------------
Subject: Question 11.1.6: Dress: Why do some Orthodox Jews, especially
Chassidim, wear a distinctive style of clothing (i.e., fur hats,
black coats, gartel)?
Answer:
The particular appearance is a matter of local custom for the group.
Black Clothes:
Black is the color of Gevurah (severity), and thus is a
symbolically appropriate garb for serious and important events
(praying, holidays, etc.) Those who wear such clothes all week
are thus indicating that their daily life is also bound up in
divrei yirah shamayim [fearing heaven].
It is worth noting that black was the traditional colour of
formal wear among many circles in the 18 Century CE. Hassidic
garb is based on what the first Rebbes wore, and by and large
represents the colours worn by Polish and other central
Europeans.
Gartel:
It is required by the Shulchan Aruch (code of Jewish law) to
have a separation between the top half of the body and the
bottom while praying. Those who do not wear a gartel hold that
other clothes satisfy t